LIBRARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Class 

— BIOLOGT 

LIBRARY 


NOTES 

ON 

MILITARY  HYGIENE 

FOB  OFFICEBS  OF  THE  LINE. 


of  Hectares 

FORMERLY  DELIVERED  AT 

THE  U.  S.  INFANTRY  AND  CAVALRY  SCHOOL. 


BY 

ALFRED  A.  WOODHULL,  A.M.,  M.D.,  LL.D.  (Princ.) 

Colonel  U.  S.  Army,  Retired;  Lately  Colonel,  Med.  Dept.  U.  S.  A. 

Lecturer  on  Personal  Hygiene  and  on  General 

Sanitation,  Princeton  University. 


THIRD  EDITION,  REWRITTEN. 
FIRST   THOU8ANI 


UNIVERSITY 

V         cr 

V 

NEW  YORK  : 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS. 

LONDON  :  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED. 

1904. 


BIOLOGY 
LIBRARY 


Copyright,  1890,  1898,  1904, 

BY 

ALFRED  A.  WOODHULL. 


ROBERT   DRUMMOND,    PRINTER,   NEW  YORK. 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 


THESE  notes  represent  the  essence  of  the  lectures 
on  Military  Hygiene  delivered  to  the  class  of  1889  at 
the  Infantry  and  Cavalry  School.  The  lectures  were 
expansions  of  this  syllabus,  and  were  chiefly  com- 
pilations with  additions,  comments,  and  illustra- 
tions from  personal  experience.  Parkes's  great  work 
is  the  chief  but  not  the  only  source  whence  the  prin- 
ciples were  drawn. 

Originally  prepared  for  the  convenience  of  student 
officers,  it  has  been  thought  that  this  abstract  might 
be  acceptable  to  officers  of  the  line  generally. 

FORT  LEAVENWORTH,  May,  1890. 

iii 


NOTE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 


THE  text  has  been  changed  when  necessary  to 
correspond  with  the  present  regulations  for  the  army, 
and  with  the  state  of  sanitary  science. 

The  essay  upon  the  care  of  troops  in  the  field, 
especially  in  warm  climates,  was  prepared  for  the 
second  edition,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish  war. 
It  is  an  expansion  of  parts  of  the  body  of  the  work, 
and  to  that  extent  duplicates  what  has  been  said  in 
a  fragmentary  way.  It  is  retained,  revised  and 
somewhat  enlarged,  under  the  belief  that  the  sub- 
ject merits  this  more  connected  discussion  notwith- 
standing the  required  duplication.  The  aim  through- 
out has  been  to  stand  in  the  place  of  a  line  officer 
anxious  to  take  care  of  his  command,  and  to  find 
answers  for  his  natural  questions.  As  far  as  possi- 
ble matters  that  belong  exclusively  to  the  medical 
staff  have  been  omitted. 

PRINCETON,  December,  1903. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGES 

I.  SELECTION  OF  SOLDIERS 1-23 

II.  MILITARY  CLOTHING 24-42 

III.  FOOD 43-87 

IV.  HABITATIONS  88-117 

V.  CAMPS  AND  MARCHES 118-135 

VI.  SEWERS  AND  WASTE 136-149 

VII.  WATER .     150-173 

VIII.  PREVENTABLE  DISEASES       ....        174-184 

IX.  CARE  OF  TROOPS  IN  THE  FIELD     .        .        .     185-214 

X,  ADDENDA  (Asepsis;  Inspection).        .        .         215-224 

BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE 225 

INDEX 227-238 

vii 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  HYGIENE. 


I. 

THE  SELECTION  OF  SOLDIERS. 

Nature  of  Military  Hygiene. 

1.  In  general  terms  military  hygiene  means  the 
care  of  troops.   This  duty  is  ever  present,  and  it  con- 
cerns line  officers  as  they  control  the  daily  lives  of 
men,  and  staff  officers  as  they  supply  their  food, 
their  clothing,  and  their  habitations. 

2.  It  is  of  importance  to  soldiers  because,  removed 
from  much  independent  action  in  relation  to  their 
own  sanitary  care,  honesty  requires  they  shall  not 
be  injured  by  the  system  imposed  on  them,  and  to 
the  State  because  nothing  is  so  costly  as  disease  and 
nothing  so  remunerative  as  the  outlay  that  aug- 
ments health  and  thus  increases  the   amount   and 
value  of  the  work  done.    (Parkes.) 

General  Physique. 

3.  The  whole  military  fabric  rests  upon  the  phys- 
ical character  of  the  individuals  composing  it.    The 
recruits  must  be  trustworthy  in  physique  before  the 
military  character  can  be  developed,  and  extreme 


2  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

care  is  necessary  to  avoid  accepting  blemished  men 
who  will  break  down  under  strain.  Recruiting  is, 
therefore,  a  serious  duty,  to  be  both  conscientiously 
and  intelligently  performed. 

4.  It   is   not   true,    as   sometimes   assumed,    that 
every  full-grown  man  who  supports  himself  by  hard 
manual  labor  will  make  an  efficient  soldier;  because 
all  his  senses  may  not  be  keen  nor  all  his  joints  flex- 
ible, and  although  accustomed  to  vigorous  work  he 
may  not  be  sound.     Unsound  men,  enlisted  on  ac- 
count of  special  skill  as  craftsmen,   can  never  be 
depended  on  for  the  field  and  will  certainly  be  ab- 
sent in  battle.     When  in  doubt  as  to  a  recruit,  reject. 

5.  Some  allowance  may  be  made  for  blemishes  not 
affecting  organic  soundness  that  have  originated  in 
the  service,   in  men  who   technically  re-enlist7   be- 
cause their  education  in  military  matters  and  their 
habits  of  discipline  compensate  for  some  minor  weak- 
nesses.    But  all  variations  from  the  standard  must 
be  carefully  noted  on  the  enlistment  papers.     Blem- 
ished men  who  failed  to  re-enlist  but  seek  to  engage 
later  are  rarely  acceptable.     It  usually  means  that 
they  cannot  succeed  in  civil  life. 

6.  "An  army  raised  without  due  regard  to  the 
choice  of  recruits  was  never  yet  made  a  good  army 
by  any  length  of  service."     (Vegetius,  A.D.  300.) 

Age  of  Recruits. 

7.  In  peace,  maximum  for  cavalry,  30  years;   for 
all  other  arms,  35  years;    minimum  for  musicians, 
16  years;    for  all  others,    18  years.     No  limit  for 
subsequent  enlistment. 

8.  Volunteers  are   accepted   between   18  and  45, 


THE    SELECTION    OF   SOLDIERS.  3 

but  men  were  drafted  in  the  Civil  War  only  between 
20  and  45.  The  unorganized  militia  are  between  18 
and  45,  but  no  men  of  less  than  20,  and  by  preference 
22,  should  ever  be  sent  into  the  field. 

Height  and  Weight. 

9.  Standards  of  height  and  weight  are  fixed  by 
regulation.     Present  minimum   height,  5   ft.    4  in. 
Maximum    height   for    cavalry,    5    ft.    10   in.;    for 
all  others  as  determined  by  relation  to  maximum 
weight. 

Cavalry,  no  minimum  weight;  cavalry  and  light 
artillery,  maximum,  165  pounds.  For  all  others, 
minimum  weight,  128  pounds;  maximum,  190 
pounds.  An  exceptionally  good  recruit  may  be 
accepted  at  120  pounds,  if  completely  filling  all 
other  conditions. 

10.  Physiological    relation    between    height    and 
weight,  used  as  the  standard  for  recruits,  is:   To  in- 
clude 5  ft.   7  in.,  2  pounds  to  the  inch  and  add  7 
pounds  for  every  inch  above  5  ft.  7  in. 

11.  Application  of  rule  for  weight:    Multiply  the 
whole  height  in  inches  by  2;  multiply  the  difference 
between  5  ft.  7  in.  and  a  greater  height  by  5;  add 
the  products. 

Example:  To  find  the  normal  weight  of  a  man  5 
ft.  10  in.  5  ft.  10  in.  =  70  in.;  70X2=140;  5  ft. 
7m.  =  67in.;  70-67  =  3;  3X5=15;  140+15  =  155 
=  weight. 

12.  The  maximum  height  for  cavalry  is  fixed,  and 
it  depends  upon  the  maximum  weight  of  165  pounds 
for   light   artillery  and   190   pounds   for    all   other 
troops. 


4  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

Example:  5  ft.  7  in.  =  67  in.;  67X2=134;  190-134 
=  56;  56-^7=8;  67+8=75  =  6  ft.  3  in.  for  foot 
troops. 

13.  Present  regulations  permit  the  acceptance  of 
recruits  a  few  pounds  over  or  ten  pounds  below  the 
standard  when  active,  vigorous,  and  healthy,  with 
firm  muscles.     But  recruits  under  weight  are  to  be 
regarded  with  disfavor  unless  reduced  by  some  man- 
ifestly temporary  condition,  and  ten  pounds  less  than 
the    standard  for   men  under   5  ft.  7  in.    involves 
physiological  risk.     It  is  better  that  men,  if  mus- 
cular, should  be  over  than  under  weight,  but  obese 
men  should  be  rejected  whether  short  or  tall. 

14.  The  present   minimum  height,  5  ft.  4  in.,  is 
merely  a   regulation  that  may  be  changed  at  any 
time;  but   experience  has  shown  that  5   ft.   2    in. 
is  practically  the  lowest   limit  for   efficiency,   and 
when  men  less  than  5  ft.  have  been  accepted  they 
have  been  found  to  speedily  break  down  as  a  class 
from  want  of  physical  strength. 

15.  Tailors,  bandsmen,  school-teachers,  and  sim- 
ilar skilled  men  may  be  accepted  if  not  more  than 
one-fourth  inch  below  the   minimum.     Exceptions 
as  to  over-height  may  be  authorized  at  the  War 
Department;    but  exceedingly  tall  men  serve  only 
an    ornamental    purpose,    such    as    drum-majors. 
They   are   seldom   very   serviceable   in   the   ranks. 
The   best   all-around    soldiers  are  between  5  ft.  6 
in.  and  5  ft.  10  in. 

Chest  Capacity. 

16.  Chest  capacity  is  determined  by  the  factors  of 
chest  measurement  and  chest  mobility,  and  is  an 


THE    SELECTION    OF   SOLDIERS.  5 

important  element  in  estimating  vigor.  The  cir- 
cumference of  the  chest  should  be  measured  at  forced 
expiration  and  forced  inspiration.  The  size  at  ex- 
piration is  the  more  important,  and  it  is  that  to 
which  the  designation  of  chest  measurement  is  tech- 
nically applied. 

17.  The  official  direction  is  to  apply  "  a  tape    at 
the  point  of  the  shoulder-blade,  when  it  will  generally 
fall  below  the  nipple."     In  actual  practice  the  tape 
is  generally  applied  in  front  just  below  the  nipple, 
which  brings  it  rather  above  the  point  of  the  shoulder- 
blade.     Otherwise  an  oblique  rather  than  a  horizon- 
tal plane  is  described. 

18.  Chest  mobility  is  the  difference  between  the 
extremes   of   expiration   and   inspiration.     The   cir- 
cumference at  the  nipple  should  be  about  one-half 
the  height  of  the  man,  and,  speaking  generally,  the 
more  nearly  the  chest  approaches  a  barrel  in  shape 
the  better. 

19.  The  capacity  of  the  lungs  increases  with  age  to 
a  certain  period  and  with  height  and  growth,  so  that 
men  from  5  to  6  ft.  high  inspire  from  174  to  262  in. 

20.  The  physiological  rule  to  determine  the  rela- 
tion of  chest  capacity  to  height  in  recruits  is:  Be- 
tween 5  ft.  4  in.  and  5  ft.  7  in.  the  mean  of  the  chest 
circumference  ought  to  be  34  in.,  and  there  must  be 
a  chest  mobility  of  2  in.,  with  a  minimum  at  expira- 
tion of  32  in.     Above  5  ft.  7  in.  the  mobility  should 
be  2J  in.,  and  for  every  inch  of  stature  add  one-half 
inch  to  chest  measurement.     For  6  ft.  and  more  the 
mobility  should  be  3  in. 

21.  The  physiological  rule   and   the   official  rule 
formerly  agreed  substantially,  but  for  a  few  years 


6  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

past  the  regulation  has  established  a  lower  standard 
and,  further,  has  authorized  the  chest  measurement — 
the  circumference  at  forced  expiration — to  be  2 
in.  still  less  when  the  recruit  is  active,  vigorous, 
and  healthy.  No  recruit  should  be  accepted  who  is 
not  active,  vigorous,  and  healthy,  and  officers  are 
particularly  warned  against  taking  advantage  of 
this  further  reduction. 

22.  Table   showing  the  relation    between  height, 
weight,  and  chest   capacity  under  the  old  and  the 
existing  standards. 

(Greenleaf,  modified.) 

Height.  Weight.  Chest  measurement  pu^t  mobility 

Inches.  Pounds.  (at  expiration).  Cnest  mobllltr- 

Old.  New. 

Inches.  Inches.  Inches. 

64  128  32£  32  2 

65  130  33  32  2 

66  132  33|  32*  2 

67  134  34  33  2 

68  141  34  33±  2i 

69  148  34i  33*  2* 

70  155  35  34  2* 

71  162  35*  34*  2* 

72  169  35|  34f  3 

73  176  36*  35*  3 

Minors. 

23.  All  military  experience  is  opposed  to  the  en- 
listment of  minors  for  active  service,  and,  notwith- 
standing it  is  legal  to  enlist  a  minor  above  the  age  of 
18  with  his  parents'  consent,  provided  he  is  in  all 
respects  the  equal  of  a  man  of  21,  it  rarely  happens 
that  such  a  lad  responds  to  the  tests  of  the  field.     This 
proviso  is  extremely  important,  and  officers  not  in- 
sisting on  this  standard  or  not  recognizing  the  phys- 
ical deficiencies  of  a  bright  lad  of  19  are  liable  to 
weaken  the  service  by  such  enlistments. 


THE    SELECTION    OF   SOLDIERS.  7 

24.  Napoleon  after  Leipsic  said:    "I  must  have 
grown  men;  boys  serve  only  to  fill  the  hospitals  and 
encumber  the  roadside." 

25.  In  Egypt,  in  1798,  the  68th  from  Bombay  was 
composed  chiefly  of  boys.     Fever  broke  out  on  their 
passage,  they  lost  nearly  half  their  number,  and  con- 
tinued so  sickly  that  they  were  re-embarked  and 
sent  back.     But  the  61st,  over  900  strong,  nearly 
all  old  soldiers,  were  sixteen  weeks  on  board  ship 
and  landed  with  only  one  man  sick.     (It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  condition  of  the  transports  and 
the  care  exercised  over  the  men  had  much  to  do 
with  their  health  in  both  of  these  cases.) 

26.  In  the  Peninsular  War,  1805-14,  300  men  who 
had  served  five  years  were  regarded  more  effective 
than  a  newly  arrived  regiment  of  1000  recruits  who 
were  lads. 

27.  In  the  Mexican  War,  1847,  our  medical  offi- 
cers constantly  reported  that  the  inferior  physique, 
and  especially  the  youth  of  the  recruits,  materially 
increased  the  sick  and  mortality  lists. 

28.  In  the  Crimea,   1854-55,  when  notified  that 
2000  recruits  were  ready,  Lord  Raglan  replied  that 
"  those  last  sent  were  so  young  and  unformed  that 
they  fell  victims  to  disease  and  were  swept  away  like 
flies,  so  that  he  preferred  to  wait/'  rather  than  to 
have  young  lads  sent  out  as  soldiers. 

29.  Lord  Hardinge  says  that  "  although  no  men 
were  sent  [to  the  Crimea]  under  19  years  of  age,  yet 
when  sent  out  it  was  found  that  instead  of  being 
composed   of  bone  and  muscle  they  were  almost 
gristle.". 

30-  In  General  Roberts's   march   from   Cabul   to 


8  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

Candahar  in  1880  "it  was  the  young  soldiers  who 
succumbed  to  its  fatigues,  while  the  old  soldiers 
became  hardier  and  stronger  every  day."  The 
Franco-German  experience  coincides  with  all  this. 

31.  The  influence  of  age  upon  disability  in  the 
field  during  the  Civil  War  has  not  been  shown  by 
authentic  statistics,  but  the  experience  of  all  officers 
serving  with  troops  then  will  confirm  the  general 
statement   that   very   young   men   generally   broke 
down  first  under  exposure  and  hardship. 

32.  In  peace,  as  well,  the  official  reports  show  that 
below  the  age  of  25  the  rate  of  sickness  very  much 
exceeds  the  mean  for  the  whole  army. 

33.  Discussing  the   defectives  in  the  Philippines, 
during    and    after    the    insurrection    of    1899-1900, 
Birmingham   ranks    first     "the    immature    youth. 
The  number  of  undeveloped  boys,  ranging  in  age 
from  17  to  21,  met  with  in  the  hospitals,  whose  only 
chance  for  life  lay  in  building  up  their  strength  suf- 
ficiently to  admit  of  their  being  put  on  the  first 
transport  sailing  for  home,  was  simply  deplorable." 
Personal  observation  entirely  agrees  with  this. 

34.  "A  large  majority  of  the  men  (or  boys)  inva- 
lided home  from  the  Philippines  were  in  their  first 
or  second  year  of  service,  and  a  great  many  were 
taken  off  transports,  put  in  hospitals,  and  shipped 
home  without  doing  a  day's  duty."     (Private  let- 
ter.) 

35.  "This  general  assent   shows  how  wrong  it  is 
to  expect  any  great  and  long-continued  exercise  of 
force  from  lads  as  young  as  18  or  20,  and  the  inev- 
itable  consequences    of   taxing   them   beyond  their 
strength."     (Marshall.) 


THE  SELECTION  OF  SOLDIERS.  9 


36.  Per  contra:  Young  men  are  more  easily  trained 
and   moulded   than   older   men,    especially   for   the 
cavalry,  and  when  well  led  fight  as  well,  as  far  as 
mere  physical  courage  goes. 

37.  But  as  we  cannot  keep  young  soldiers  several 
years  in  training,  and  as  large  bodies  of  troops  will 
only  be  raised  for  sudden  war,  men  not  absolutely 
mature  must   be  rejected,   for   the   most   effective 
armies  have  always  been  those  where  the  youngest 
men  were  22. 

38.  If  battalions  of  military  apprentices  should  be 
authorized,  as  once  proposed,  to  be  trained  and  kept 
occupied  in  practical  military  work  at  home,  they 
should  completely  replace  the  minors  now  unwisely 
enlisted  in  the  line  and  develop  into  excellent  sol- 
diers. . 

Growth  and  Development. 

39.  Growth  "is  the  gradual  increase  to  full  size  by 
the  addition  of  matter/'  and  development  "is  the 
advancement  of  an  organized  being  from  one  stage 
to   another  toward  a  more  complete  state."     Be- 
cause a  man  has  acquired  his  growth,  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  he  is  fully  developed.     Physical  matur- 
ity does  not  occur  until  nearly  the  twenty-fifth  year, 
and  a  man  less  than  22,  and  especially  one  not  yet 
20,  is  very  liable  to  break  down  under  the  conditions 
of  military  life. 

40.  The  skeleton  is  designed  to  enclose,  support, 
and  defend  the  important  organs  of  life,  and  for 
locomotion.     The  bones  which    make  it  up   arise 
from  separate  centres  and  coalesce  so  slowly  that 
some  of  them  are  not  consolidated  until  the  twenty- 
fifth  year. 


10  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

41.  The  weakest  part  of  the  spine  is  that  of  its 
greatest  curve,  at  the  "  hollow  of  the  back,"  and 
here  the  circle  of  the  body,  the  waist,  is  least.     Here 
the  jar  of  a  false  step,  the    fatigue  of  drills    and 
marches,  and  the  early  aching  in  fevers  are  most 
severely  felt. 

42.  The  sacrum  and  hip-bones  together  form  a 
buttress   and   arches   adapted   to   support   weights, 
and   upon   them    men    can   best   sustain   burdens, 
whether  in  military  or  civil  life.     These  are  consoli- 
dated at  the  25th  year. 

43.  Other  physiological  considerations  in  connec- 
tion with  the  young  soldier  are  the  growth  of  the 
bones  and  muscles  in  relation  to  each  other ;  for  the 
muscles,   or   flesh,   by  whose   contractions   physical 
movements   are  made,   are   attached   by   their   ex- 
tremities, and  sometimes  along  part  of  their  length 
to  the  bones.     Large  and  powerful  muscles  require 
proportionately  large  and  powerful  bones,  and  well- 
developed    points,    ridges,    and    prominences    upon 
these  for  their  attachment. 

44.  The  bones  become  thicker,  the  joints  stronger, 
and  the  shoulders  broader   from  the  20th  to  25th 
year,  the   maximum    height   is    barely  attained  at 
25,  and  the   muscles  gradually  develop  in  size  and 
strength  up  to  30th  year. 

Effect  of  Pressure  upon  Contents  of  Chest. 

45.  One  important  function  of  the  skeleton  is  to 
enclose  and  protect  the  heart  and  lungs  in  the  cavity 
of  the  chest;   notwithstanding  which    these  organs 
suffer  more  in    the    recruit  whatever  his-  age,    but 


THE   SELECTION   OF    SOLDIERS.  11 


especially    in    the     young,    than    in    the    seasoned 
soldier. 

46.  "Next  to  the  inspiration  of  bad  air,  the  im- 
perfect or  continuously  obstructed  expansion  of  the 
chest  tends  more  than  any  cause  we  know  of  to  bring 
about  diseases  of  the  heart  and  lungs."     (Aitken.) 

47.  Pressure   before    or    behind    tends    to    "set'' 
growing  bones  in  an  unnatural  direction,  or  to  crip- 
ple the  lungs  by  confining  the  chest-walls,  and  even 
canteen  and  haversack  straps  may  press  upon  the 
immature  recruit  to  his  harm. 

48.  Nevertheless,  in  the  field  the  soldier  must  carry 
packs  of  some  sort,  which,  especially  when  ill  ad- 
justed, tend  materially   to   derange   the   contained 
chest  organs. 


Growth  and  Development  of  Lungs  and  Heart. 

9 

49.  It  is  indispensable  that  these  organs  shall  be 
sound  and  well  developed.     Both  of  them  increase  in 
size  and  weight,  especially  between  the  14th  and 
25th  years,  unless  crippled  by  an  insufficient  bony 
case,  as  sometimes  occurs  to  the  lungs. 

50.  The    greatest    proportionate    growth    of    the 
heart  is  during  the  change  known  as  the  accession 
of   puberty,   when  it   nearly   doubles   its   size.      If 
that    occupies    five   years    the   heart-increase    each 
year  is  one-fifth;   but  if  it  occurs  in  one  year,  the 
growth  is  so  much  more  rapid  that  the  heart  may 
become  weak  out  of  all  proportion  to  its  size.     A 
heart  that  grows  in  one  year  three  times  as  much  as 
in  the  preceding  year  is  almost  necessarily  weak. 
Hence  a  recruit  with  a  so  rapidly  developed  heart  is 
not    acceptable    for    continuous    labor.     The    heart 


12  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

continues  to  increase  in  size  after  puberty,  and  its 
greatest  amount  of  growth  is  from  the  18th  to  25th 
year. 

51.  "The  greatest  strain  is  thrown  on  the  heart 
throughout  adolescence  to  adult  age,   and  a  very 
constant  group  of  symptoms  indicates  the  cardiac 
failure  that  must  be  looked  for  in  overworked  re- 
cruits."    (Aitken.) 

52.  This   heart-strain   from    excessive   fatigue   in 
those  who  have  grown  rapidly  and  who  have  defi- 
cient reserve  energy  is  apt  to  lead  to  heart-failure 
under  unwonted  exertion  and  in  emergencies.     It  is 
this  liability  in  the  young  soldier,  whether  he  has 
grown  rapidly  or  not,  that  is  one  of  the  most  serious 
objections  to  immature  levies. 

Effect  of  Injudicious  Drill  upon  Recruits. 

53.  Military  drill  is  intended  (1)  to  instruct  the 
man  in  certain  movements  for  his  greater  efficiency 
as  a  soldier  acting  with  others,  and  (2)  to  develop  a 
power    of    physical    endurance.     A    young    recruit 
cannot  keep  pace  with  a  full-grown  and  completely 
trained  man  in  the  ranks,  mainly  because  his  heart 
and  blood-vessels  are  not  fully  developed  nor  spe- 
cially   accustomed    to    the    work.     Failure    usually 
arises  from  attempting  too  much  at  the  outset;  and 
with  excessive  work  at  the  begininng,  or  with  a  sud- 
den increase,  as  in  forced  marches,  these  youths  rap- 
idly break  down. 

54.  Drill  must  begin  within  the  powers  of  endur- 
ance of  the  recruit,  and  the  young  soldier,  usually 
keeping  up  too  long  from  pride,  should  be  encour- 
aged to  fall  out  of  ranks  when  distressed.     "The 


THE    SELECTION    OF   SOLDIERS.  13 

throb  of  the  heart  and  the  swell  of  the  arteries  and 
veins  must  be  allowed  to  subside  and  settle  down 
completely,  so  that  the  lungs  may  resume  their 
peaceful  action  of  easy  breathing,  before  any  further 
drill  exertion  is  attempted."  (Aitken.)  If  his 
breathing  does  not  gradually  improve,  or  if  the 
man's  weight  continues  to  decline,  he  should  with- 
out further  delay  be  referred  to  the  medical  officer 
for  examination. 

55.  Treatment  in  such  cases  cannot  be  hurried. 
To  take  a  young  soldier  into  hospital  for  a  week  or 
two  only  gives  temporary  ease.     No  medicine  is  a 
substitute   for   strength,    and    it   may   require   six 
months  for  the  heart  to  recover  from  one  strain. 
The  same  symptoms  will  recur  again  and  again  under 
similar   circumstances,   until   the   condition  is   out- 
grown by  development  maturing,  or  the  heart  is 
permanently  damaged. 

Influence  of  Age  and  Height. 

56.  But  while  immature  men  should  not  be  ac- 
cepted, neither  are  too  old  men  good  recruits.      The 
regulation  limit  in  peace  of  35  (30  for  cavalry)  is  the 
extreme  under  ordinary  conditions.     As  long  as  they 
are  physically  sound,  recruits  are  legally  acceptable 
in  war  under  45,  but  as  they  approach  30  common 
laborers  are  liable  to  become  stiffened  in  body  and 
mentally  dulled,  and  few  men  of  middle  age  enlisting 
for  the  first  time  are  able  to  endure  the  strain  of  the 
field.     In  the  Spanish  war  men  from  the  coal-mines 
of    Pennsylvania,    although    used    to    hard    labor, 
proved  as  a  class  physically  most  unacceptable  re- 
cruits. 


14  NOTES   ON   MILITARY  HYGIENE. 

. 

57.  Under  existing  orders  very  tall  men  are  prac- 
tically   excluded.    Were   there   no   regulation,    tall 
young  men   would   be   objectionable   because   their 
height  is  often  gained  at  the  expense  of  bulk  or  of 
the  vigor  of  heart  and  lungs.     A  soldier  is  a  machine 
of  two  parts;  legs  and  arms  offensive,  chest  and  ab- 
domen vital.    Within  the  latter  is  generated  the 
power  that  makes  the  former  available. 

58.  An  ill-proportioned  tall  man  is  undesirable. 
If  analysis  of  such  an  applicant  shows  that  he  is  tall 
by  virtue  of  his  legs  and  neck  alone,  remember  that 
he  will  become  tired  sooner,  partly  because  his  mus- 
cles are  relatively  smaller  and  the  levers  they  operate 
(the  bones)  are  longer  than  those  of  shorter  men, 
and  partly  because  probably  less  vital  force  is  gen- 
erated in  the  less  capacious  chest  and  abdomen. 

59.  That  the  strongest  army  is  the  best  army  is  a 
saying  as  old  as  the  Romans,  and  properly  inter- 
preted it  is  true.     Other  things  being  equal,  those 
with  the  most  endurance  are  the  best  soldiers.     Cer- 
tainly the  troops  that  march  best  are  the  most  effi- 
cient, and  are  those  on  whom  generals  must  depend. 
The    marching    qualities    of    Ord's    infantry    made 
Appomattox  possible. 

Examination  of  Recruits. 

60.  It  is  a  recruiting  officer's  duty  to  select  crit- 
ically and  accept  only  those  who  will  probably  be- 
come strong  and  active  soldiers.     The  test  of  mere 
numbers  is  a  very  poor  one  to  determine  the  effi- 
ciency of  a  recruiting  officer,  for  they  are  true  maxims 
"that  an  army  consists  of  the  bayonets  in  the  field, 
not  the  names  on  the  muster-roll,"  "nothing  is  so 


THE  SELECTION  OF  SOLDIERS.          15 

expensive  as  an  unhealthy  military  force"  (Fair), 
and  "it  is  of  much  more  importance  that  a  soldier 
should  be  strong  than  that  he  should  be  tall." 
(Vegetius.) 

61.  The  recruiting  regulations  carefully  followed 
are  a  safe  and  explicit  guide.     But  there  is  a  con- 
stant tendency  to  disregard  their  minutiae,  under  the 
feeling  that,  apart  from  obscure  diseases,  any  officer 
accustomed  to  soldiers  can  recognize  a  good  recruit 
at    sight.     Therefore,    disregarding    morbid    condi- 
tions only  discoverable  by  a  physician,  special  atten- 
tion is  invited  to  the  following  points. 

62.  The    physiological    requirements    of    height, 
eight,  and  chest  capacity  should  be  carefully  ob- 
served, because  they  are  based  upon  natural  laws 
that  cannot  be  disregarded  with  impunity. 

63.  No   precise   standard   of   intelligence   can   be 
formulated,  but  care  must  be  taken  to  exclude  men 
not  capable  of  appreciating  the  improved  weapons 
and  the  more  responsible  duties  of  the  modern  sol- 
dier.    "The  development  of  the  head  and  the  sym- 
metry of  its  proportion  should  be  as  carefully  in- 
sisted   upon    as    with    other    organs    and    regions." 
(Crawford.)     Examine    the    head   with    the    fingers 
carefully,  and  for  any  depression  not  certainly  natural, 
for  any  serious  scar,  or  for  any  sensitive  spot,  reject. 
Such  men  invariably  break  down  under  exposure  to 
heat  or  to  great  fatigue. 

64.  All  lank,   slight,   puny  men  with   contracted 
figure — men   technically   termed  as   of   "poor   phy- 
sique"— should  be  set  aside,  for  there  is  no  class 
that  furnishes  so  large  a  proportion  to  the  hospital 
and  the  guard-house  as  this.     "Another  class  hav- 


16  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

ing  neither  apparent  disease  nor  well-characterized 
physical  or  moral  defect  is  equally  objectionable; 
there  is  a  '  something '  about  them  [which  may  well 
be  termed  want  of  aptitude]  which  satisfies  an  ex- 
pert that  they  will  make  either  indifferent  or  bad 
soldiers."  (Greenleaf.)  In  all  cases  of  doubt,  re- 
ject. It  is  sheer  waste  for  the  government  to  take 
care  of  incompetents.  The  army  is  neither  a  reform- 
atory nor  an  almshouse. 

65.  The  utmost  care  should  be  had  to  exclude  men 
likely  to  be  intemperate,  for  the  intolerable  nui- 
sance that  drunkards  are  within  the  service  warrants 
the  risk  of  occasionally  rejecting  a  sober  man  rather 
than  to  accept  those  who  constantly  make  trouble 
in  peace  and  who  cannot  be  depended  on  in  war. 

66.  When  a  recruiting  officer  has  merely  an  un- 
trained civil  physician,  one  not  practically  familiar 
with  military  life,  to  assist  him,  he  must  depend  in 
great  measure  upon  his  own  observation  and  judg- 
ment.    Many  a  first-class  life-insurance  risk  would 
be  utterly  worthless  as  a  soldier. 

67.  A  summary  of  the  general  qualifications  is: 
"A  tolerably  just  proportion  between  the  different 
parts    of    the   trunk    and   members,    a    well-shaped 
head,  thick  hair,  a  countenance  expressive  of  health, 
with  a  lively  eye,  skin  not  too  white,  lips  red,  teeth 
white  and  in  good  condition,  voice  strong,  skin  firm, 
chest  well-formed,  belly  lank,  organs  of  generation 
well  developed,  limbs  muscular,  feet  arched  and  of 
moderate  length,  hands  large." 

68.  Sound  opposing  teeth  to  chew  well  the  diffi- 
cult food  of  the  field  are  necessary.     At  the  least 
there   must   be   two   good   grinders   opposite   each 


THE   SELECTION    OF   SOLDIERS.  17 

other  on  each  side.  Unmasticated  food  leads  to 
intestinal  disease,  and  carious  teeth,  especially  in  early 
life,  mark  a  feeble  constitution  easily  undermined. 

69.  Should  the  pulse  at  either  wrist  drop  a  beat  at 
intervals,  either  before  or  after  exercise,  reject. 

70.  Vision  of  each  eye  as  tried  by  test-cards  must 
be  acute.     Each  eye  in  turn  should  be  covered  by 
card-board,  not  by  the  hand. 

71.  Hearing  of  each  ear  must  easily  distinguish 
ordinary  conversation  at  fifty  feet.     Unilateral  deaf- 
ness is  only  distinguishable  by  carefully  closing  each 
ear  in  succession  by  pressure,  and  is  disqualifying. 

72.  While  all  joints  must  be  mobile,  special  pains 
should  be  paid  to  the  right  thumb  and  forefinger, 
so  important  in  handling  arms.     The  thumb,  act- 
ing in  opposition  to  the  rest  of  the  hand,  is  the  char- 
acteristic distinction  between  man  and  the  quadru- 
mana.     It  affords  the  grasp  which  makes  weaving, 
building   fires,    and   the   use   of   weapons   possible. 
(Whitehead.)     Strength  and  mobility  in  the  thumb 
are  indispensable. 

73.  The  testicles  must  be  handled,  and  if  either 
is  sensitive  or  both  have  dwindled,  reject. 

74.  For  visible  veins   of  the  ankle,   behind  the 
knee,  or  on  the  thigh,  reject  when  they  are  really 
large  and  multiple.     A  few  inconspicuous  veins  do 
not  disqualify  spare  men. 

75.  Determine  the  soundness  of  the  lower  limbs 
by    vigorous    exercise.     Observe    keenly    that    each 
limb  does  its  full  share  of  work.     Count  silently 
the  number  of  hops  with  each  leg  in  passing  twice 
over  a  given  distance;    should  they  differ,  there  is 
weakness  or  stiffness. 


18  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

76.  Flatfootedness,  a  peculiar  dread  of  many  re- 
cruiting officers,  and  thus  leading  to  the  occasional 
rejection  of  fair  men,  is  rarely  seen  among  the  whites 
of  this  country.      In  the  disqualifying  flat  foot  the 
inner  ankle  is  very  prominent  and  lower  than  usual; 
there  is  a  hollow  of  greater  or  less  extent  below  the 
outer  ankle;    the  foot  is  not  well  arched,  and  is 
broader  at  the  ankle  than  near  the  toes;   the  inner 
side  is  flat  and  occasionally  convex,  and  when  placed 
on   the    ground    the   finger   cannot    be   introduced 
beneath  the  sole;   the  weight  of  the  body  rests  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  sole,  and  the  ordinary  motions 
of  the  ankle  are  impaired. 

77.  For  bunions,  large  or  recently  inflamed,  reject. 
A  tightly  fitting  shoe  will  at  once  disqualify  with  them. 
Corns  on  the  sole  are  mischievous,  and  when  under 
the  base  of  the  great  toe  condemn.     Numerous  corns 
may  cripple  the  foot  for  prolonged  walking. 

78.  Foetid  perspiration  of  the  feet  is  intolerable 
in  a  squad-room.     A  recruit  so  afflicted  should  not 
be  accepted  and  if  inadvertently  enlisted  should  be 
discharged.     That  is  a  disease,  and  is  distinct  from 
want  of  cleanliness. 

79.  A  toe,  usually  the  second,  sometimes  is  stif- 
fened at  right  angles  so  that  the  nail  touches  the 
ground.     Reject,  because  sand  will  work  under  the 
nail   and    cause    inflammation.     This   is    known   as 
"  hammer-toe,"    or  "  walking  on  the  nail."     Occa- 
sionally one  toe,  permanently  displaced  by  a  tight 
shoe  in  youth,  will  overlap  another.     That  is  dis- 
qualifying, notwithstanding  the  man  may  not  limp 
when  examined. 


THE    SELECTION    OF   SOLDIERS.  19 

80.  Unsightly  markings  are  disqualifying,  because 
they  lead  to  rude  and  vexatious  jests. 

81.  The  preceding  points  are  those  most  apt  to  be 
overlooked  by  inexperienced  officers,  and  stress  is 
laid  upon  their  importance  in  securing  sound  men. 

82.  Vaccination  as    a  practical  immunity  against 

»  smallpox  should  be  carefully  but  not  too  frequently 
practised.  Thorough  vaccination  in  infancy  re- 
peated at  the  age  of  14-16  will  generally  protect, 
but  every  recruit  should  be  presented  for  examina- 
tion as  soon  as  he  reaches  a  proper  station. 

General  Considerations. 

83.  In  war,  especially  under  a  general  enrolment, 
men  with  minor  physical  blemishes  may  properly 
be  accepted  provided  their  general  health  is  sound, 
but  every  variation  from  the  standard  in  peace  or 
war  should  be  carefully  noted  on  the  descriptive 
lists. 

84.  In  raising  new  troops  when  it  is  possible  to 
select,  for  sharp  and  immediate  active  service  take 

•  town-bred  men.  If  a  year  or  two  can  be  had  in 
which  to  train  them,  take  country-bred  men. 

85.  Open-air  military  life  is  physical  promotion  to 
city  men  accustomed  to  irregular  hours,  unwhole- 
some   meals,    and    poorly  ventilated  rooms.     They 
are    the    survivors    from    the    contagious    diseases, 
which  nearly  all  of  them  have  had,  and  their  minds 
are  much  more  active  for  the  reception  of  new  ideas 
of  drill  and  discipline,  although  not  always  particu- 
larly docile.     They  must  be  more  carefully  scruti- 
nized for  the  physical  stains  of  vice. 

86.  To  young  men  from  the  country  the  irregular 


20  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

and  sometimes  scanty  meals,  broken  rest,  necessity 
for  prompt  and  exact  action ,  and  above  all  the  cer- 
tainty of  acquiring  such  diseases  as  measles,  whoop- 
ing-cough, and  mumps,  which  town  boys  always 
have  in  childhood,  are  very  exhausting.  After  a 
year's  training  country  recruits  are  more  valuable, 
generally  showing  more  endurance  when  seasoned. 

87.  But    never    be    satisfied    with    minors,    and 
always  give  preference  to  men  of  mature  physique. 
In  a  volunteer  regiment  that  preserved  excellent 
health    under    particularly    unfavorable    conditions 
in  one  of  the  large  camps  of  1898,  the  men  were  well 
beyond    minority    and    were   thoroughly    matured. 
They  had  been  carefully  selected   by  one  of  their 
officers  who  had  been  an  intelligent  sergeant  in  the 
army,  and  they  displayed  remarkable  resistance  to 
very  pernicious  surroundings. 

88.  After  muster-in  all  volunteers  should  be  de- 
tained for  a  short  time  in  a  special  camp,  to  weed 
out  the  inadvertently-accepted  imperfect  men.     As 
the  effectiveness  of  any  command  depends  on  vigor 
rather  than  numbers,  all  frail  men  should  then  be 
discharged  and  the  civil  origin  of  their  pre-existing 
disabilities  be  clearly  noted  on  their  papers.     Even 
at  that  date  it  is  much  better  to  discharge  than  to 
retain  doubtful  men. 

89.  Even  with  seasoned  troops  special  examina- 
tion   should    also    exclude    the   temporarily   weak 
from  any  serious  march  or  expedition,  due  allow- 
ance being  made  for  malingering.     A  column  in- 
tended for  vigorous  service  should  be  free  from  men 
who  would  limit  its  action.     Such  temporary  ex- 
empts may  always  be  usefully  employed  at  the  base. 


THE  SELECTION  OF  SOLDIERS.         21 

90.  Measles   is   a  particularly  serious    camp    dis- 
ease,   always    to    be    anticipated    in    newly   raised 
commands,  especially  ravaging  those  from  the  rural 

.  districts.  In  the  Civil  War  there  were  67,700  cases 
with  4200  deaths  among  white  troops  and  8555 
cases  with  933  deaths  among  colored  troops  in  the 
Union  Army.  (See  par.  788.) 

91.  Typhoid  fever  (which  see  later)  is  always  to  be 
found  among  large  bodies  of  recruits,  where  it  will 
spread  unless  competent  medical  advice  as  to  its 
prevention  is  carefully  followed.     Enormous  camps 
of  new  troops  as  sometimes  organized  are  hurtful, 
because  of  their  tendency  to  propagate  disease. 

92.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  accept  militia  com- 
mands as  a  whole,  even  for  a  limited  time,  without 
close   individual   scrutiny.     Usually   their   physical 
requirements  for  membership   are  very  light,   and 
their  acquaintance  with  drill  does  not  compensate 
for  a  low  average  in  years  and  physique. 

93.  The  matter  of  recruiting  is  thus  dwelt  upon 
because  it  is  the  foundation  upon  which  the  whole 
military  organization  rests.     It  is  impossible  to  have 
an  efficient     army  without  carefully  selected  men. 
And  after  enlistment  an  equal  duty  rests  upon  com- 
pany officers  to  see  that  these  men  are  not  injured  by 
their  new  surroundings. 

Comparison  between  Sickness  and  Violence. 

94.  Very  little  sickness  is  spontaneous,  and  with 
an  army  of  sound  men  there  is  no  good  reason  why 
there  should  be  much  loss  of  duty  from  disease. 
When   company  officers   study  for  themselves   the 
problems  of  ventilation,  of  food,  of  the  healthfulness 


22  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

of  camps,  of  water-supply,  of  the  disposal  of  excreta, 
when  they  concern  themselves  with  soldiers  as  phys- 
iological agents,  the  army  will  be  prepared  for  the 
highest  exhibition  of  sustained  action. 

95.  As  would  be  supposed,  in  peace,  when  casual- 
ties by  violence  are  few,  the  disability  by  disease  is 
out  of  all  proportion  to  that  by  injury.     But  in  war 
also  deaths  from  sickness,  quite  independently  of 
that  sickness  which  is  recovered  from  or  which  leads 
to  discharge  without  immediate  loss  of  life,  outnumber 
many  fold  those  from  battle.     Unlike  in  peace,  very 
many  of  the  disease-causes  of  war  are  unavoidable. 

96.  In  the  Mexican  War,  of  the  regular  force  73 
officers  and  862  men,  total  935,  were  killed  or  died  of 
wounds,  and  85  officers  and  4629  men,  total  4714, 
died  of  disease  in  the  field,  or  rather  less  than  1  to  5. 

Of  the  volunteers  1549  officers  and  men  died  by  vio- 
lence and  10,986  by  disease,  or  a  little  less  than  1  to  7. 

97.  During  the  Rebellion  99,183  white  troops  died 
from  the  casualties  of  battle  and  171,806  from  dis- 
ease, or  nearly  1  to  2 ;  while  for  colored  troops  it  was 
3417  by  violence  and  29,963  by  disease,  or  1  to  8.7. 

98.  The  Santiago  campaign  of  1898,  successful  in 
the  direct  collision,  culminated  in  the  virtual  disso- 
lution, from  disease,  of  the  invading  corps  as  a  fur- 
ther aggressive  force.     The  -  Philippine  insurrection 
of  1899  filled  the  hospitals  with  the  seriously  sick, 
while  the  casualties  of  action  were  moderate. 

In  the  Philippines,  in  the  eighteen  months  follow- 
ing July  1,  1898,  36  officers  and  489  men,  total  525, 
were  killed  in  action  or  died  of  wounds,  and  16  offi- 
cers and  693  men,  total  809,  died  of  disease.  This  is 
as  1  to  1.7.  These  were  exclusive  of  587  discharged 


THE   SELECTION   OF   SOLDIERS.  23 

for  disability  and  1901  transferred  to  the  United 
States  incapacitated,  both  groups  including  all 
causes.  The  non-fatal  wounds  were  1767.  The 
number  constantly  sick  was  enormously  in  excess  of 
those  off  duty  from  wounds.  Harrington,  including 
the  statistics  of  the  entire  force  at  all  places  for  the 
Cuban  and  the  Philippine  campaigns  for  the  year 
ending  April  30,  1899,  states  that  968  men  were 
killed  or  died  of  wounds,  injuries,  or  accidents  (not 
all,  therefore,  in  battle)  and  5438  died  from  disease, 
or  1  to  5.6.  In  these  figures  "men"  probably  in- 
cludes officers. 

99.  The  German  army  in  the  war  of  1870-71  is 
the  only  one  known  to  have  kept  its  mortality  from 
disease  below  that  from  battle.     This  probably  de- 
pended upon  the  shortness  of  the  war,  the  rapid  suc- 
cession of  battles,  the  trained  troops,  and  presum- 
ably upon  its  exact  discipline  being  exerted  for  the 
care  of  the  men  as  well  as  in  other  directions. 

100.  But  the  amount  of  disease,  rather  than  the 
number  of  deaths,  is  the  measure  of  physical  inca- 
pacity for  an  army.     It  matters  very  little  what  the 
particular  cause  of  the  unfitness  may  be  at  any  one 
time,  as  long  as  so  many  men  are  then  unfit  for  duty. 
The  actual  and  the  probable  sick  reports  combined 
restrain  a  command,  by  interfering  with  its  mobility 
and  weakening  its  fighting  power.     By  the  probable 
sick  report  is  meant  such  a  state  of  health  or  endur- 
ance that,  while  it  allows  a  command  to  do  a  certain 
form  of  duty,  say  in  garrison,  might  not  permit  it  to 
keep   the   field   or    to   undergo    peculiar   hardships. 
The  influence  of  line  officers,  and  especially  of  com- 
manding officers,  is  very  potent  here. 


II. 

MILITARY  CLOTHING. 

Its  Object. 

101.  As  the  non-essentials   of  dress  are  usually 
both  valueless  and  inconvenient  in  war,  the  cloth- 
ing that  the  soldier  is  compelled  to  wear  should  be 
simple  and  suited  to  his  arduous  work. 

102.  The  essential  object  of  all  clothing  is  the  pro- 
tection of  the  person  from  extremes  of  temperature 
by  conserving  bodily  heat  in  cold  weather  and  pre- 
venting suffering  from  either  solar  heat  or  that  gen- 
erated by  exercise. 

103.  A  secondary  object  of  military  clothing  is  to 
encourage  proper  professional  pride  in  the  soldier, 
to  aid  in  determining  his  place  in  the  army,  and  to 
render  him  inconspicuous  to  the  enemy. 

Distinctive  Markings. 

104.  Each   arm   should   be   distinguished,    as   at 
present,  by  its  appropriate  dress,  and  in  large  com- 
mands the  divisions  may  conveniently  be  identified 
by  corps  badges. 

105.  Corps  badges  are  devices  systematized  and 
attached  to  the  cap;  e.g.,  a  Maltese  cross,  a  trefoil,  a 
diamond  in  cloth,  as  the  device  for  the  corps;  then 
those  of  the  first  division  would  be  red,  of  the  second 
white,  of  the  third  blue  on  a  white  ground,  the  fourth 

24 


MILITARY    CLOTHING.  25 


orange.  These  should  be  undiscernible  to  the  foe, 
but  serve  both  for  identification  and  as  a  sign  of 
comradeship  within  the  army. 

106.  There  is   a   constant  temptation  with  new 
troops  to  wear  some  conspicuous  mark  of  regimental 
significance,  whose  ultimate  effect   is  to  draw  fire. 
This  should  never  be  permitted. 

107.  Regimental    facings    are    sometimes  pressed 
in  the  interest  of  regimental  esprit.      Good  results 
would  follow  with  good  troops.     But  a  minor  obsta- 
cle is  that  of  cost,  and  a  serious  one  that  of  supply. 
In  the  Crimea  the  British  suffered  severely  in  at- 
tempting to  keep  up  distinctive  regimental  clothing, 
and  until  it  was  abandoned  the  men  were  not  suffi- 
ciently clad. 

108.  Our  State  troops  will  probably  long  maintain 
showy  dress  uniforms  for  purposes  of  display.     But 
their  fighting  clothing,  the  undress,  should  be  uni- 
form with  that  of  the  United  States  for  convenience 
of  administration. 


, 


Color. 


09.  Color  is  a  military  and  a  physiological  factor 
in  clothing.  Military  garments  should  be  neutral  in 
tint.  Gray  and  drab  are  the  best  colors,  and  next  a 
light  butternut  dye. 

110.  The  order  in  which  colors  draw  fire  is  red, 
white,  black  or  dark  blue,  light  blue,  butternut, 
dust-gray ,  and  drab.  Scarlet  tells  with  great  effect 
upon  the  wearer,  and  certain  so-called  zouave  regi- 
ments certainly  left  some  dead  upon  the  field  that 
would  have  been  spared  in  a  plainer  dress.  The 
old-fashioned  white  cross-belts  have  had  many 


26  NOTES    ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

victims.  The  same  is  true  of  the  white  shoulder- 
straps  lately  in  use  on  khaki  coats,  which  were  con- 
spicuous marks  between  which  to  aim. 

111.  Gray  varies  considerably  in  shade,  so  that  at 
one  end  of  the  scale  it  differs  but  little  from  light 
blue.     But  in  large  masses,  dust-gray  (khaki)  and 
drab  are  the  most  nearly  invisible.     This  is  particu- 
larly true  in  arid  countries  and  among  forests.     The 
stain  of  ordinary  soil  is  less  marked  upon  it. 

112.  Therefore,  for  service,  as  exposed  to  long- 
range  firearms,  the  least  conspicuous  the  dress  the 
better. 

113.  The  color  of  full-dress  uniform  has  no  hygi- 
enic  quality,  except  in  tropical  climates,  where  it 
should  approach  as  nearly  as  possible  to  white. 

114.  Protection   against   the  sun's   rays   depends 
entirely  upon  color,  irrespective  of  texture.     Color 
does   not  influence   bodily   heat,   nor   the   external 
temperature   except   as    directly   derived   from   the 
sun.     White  absorbs  the  least  heat,  and  is  therefore 
the  coolest;    black  the  most,  and  is  the  warmest; 
and  blue  is  next  to  black.     A  thin  white  cotton 
tissue  worn  over  a  dark  cloth  coat  will  reduce  the 
temperature  by  12.6°  F.  in  very  hot  sun's  rays. 

115.  The  absorption  of  odor  depends  partly  upon 
texture,  in  proportion  to  the  hygroscopic  power  of 
the  material,  and  partly  upon  color.     Black  absorbs 
odors  the  most,  blue  next,  white  least.     Dark  colors, 
therefore,  should  not  be  worn  by  those  associated 
with  the  sick. 


MILITARY   CLOTHING.  27 


MATERIALS. 

116.  Clothing  creates  no  heat.  Depending  upon 
color,  not  upon  texture,  it  absorbs  the  direct  solar 
rays.  Further  than  that  it  is  hot  or  cool  just  as  it 
retains  the  heat  of  the  body  or  allows  it  to  escape. 

Cotton  and  Linen. 

;117.  Both  cotton  and  linen  conduct  heat  rapidly, 
nd  neither  absorbs  water  well;  so  the  perspiration 
asses  directly  through  to  the  outer  surface,  where 
it  evaporates. 

118.  The  heat  generated  by  bodily  exercise  is  re- 
duced by  the  evaporation  of  the  sensible  perspira- 
tion.    When  the  exertion  ceases  the  generation  of 
heat  is  reduced,  but  the  flow  of  perspiration  per- 
sists for  the  time,  so  that,  where  its  rapid  evapora- 

ion  continues,  the  consequent  chilling  of  the  body 
is  liable  to  be  followed  by  sickness. 

119.  As  cotton  and  linen,  even  when  dry,  con- 
.uct  heat  away  from  the  body  rapidly,  and  as  they 

speedily  become  drenched  by  perspiration,  this  rapid 
evaporation  proceeds  practically  unchecked.  They 
are  therefore  unsuited  for  ordinary  military  clothing, 
and  are  positively  dangerous  for  men  liable  to  vio- 
lent exertion  followed  by  sudden  rest. 

120.  A  special  weave  of  linen  is  now  on  the  mar- 
:et,  for  which  it  is  claimed  that  so  much  air  is  en- 

gled  in  an  open  mesh  as  to  obviate  some  of  these 
disadvantages. 

121.  Nevertheless,  when  the  temperature  of  the 
air  in  the  shade  approaches  for  considerable  periods 
the  normal  heat  of  the  body  (100°  F.);  the  system 


: 


28  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

becomes  enervated  and  the  clothing  should  not  add 
to  that  embarrassment,  as  heavy  wool,  formerly 
worn  universally,  would.  Therefore  a  white  duck 
sack-coat  and  trousers  may  be  worn  at  home  in 
summer,  in  extreme  southern  latitudes,  when  author- 
ized by  the  department  commander.  This  pre- 
supposes wearing  a  light  woollen  undershirt  also. 

122.  So  in   tropical   climates  cotton  duck,  white 
in    garrison   and   olive-drab    in   the   field,    guarded 
by   mixed  woollen  underwear,  is  appropriate.     But 
starched  cotton  and  linen  are  nearly  impermeable 
to  air  and  are  very  hot,  until  broken  down  by  per- 
spiration.    Cotton  is  cheap  and  is  very  durable. 

123.  White  cotton  outer  clothing  is  authorized  on 
sanitary  grounds  for  Hospital  Corps  soldiers  doing 
ward  duty  at  any  station. 

Wool. 

124.  Wool    conducts    heat    badly    and    absorbs 
water  freely  in  two   ways.     The  .water  permeates 
and   distends   the   fibres   of  the  wool    (hygroscopic 
water)  and  lies  between  the  fibres  (water  of  inter- 
position).    In  relation  to  cotton  or  linen,  wool  ab- 
sorbs hygroscopically  at  least  double  in  proportion 
to  its  weight  and  quadruple  in  proportion  to  its 
surface. 

125.  By  absorbing  the  perspiration,  wool  counter- 
acts the  evaporation  that  persists   after  excessive 
exercise.     Dry  woollen  clothing  condenses  the  vapor 
from  the  surface  of  the  body  and  gives  out   much 
heat  that  had  become  latent  when  the  water  of  the 
body  was  vaporized  (insensible  perspiration). 

126.  While  dry  wool  is  of  course  better  than  wet 


•I    UNIVERSITY  J 

MILITARY    CLOTHING.  29 

woollen  clothing,  it  is  rare  that  woollen  clothes  be- 
come saturated  with  bodily  moisture;  and  even 
when  they  do,  they  may  be  partly  dried  by  wringing, 
and  thus  become  useful  for  further  condensation 
and  absorption. 

127.  Wool  is  not  easily  penetrated  by  cold  winds, 
and  its  quality  of  non-conduction  makes  it  useful  in 
cold  and  oppressive  in  warm  climates. 

128.  The  chief  disadvantage  of  woollen  clothing, 
where  the  climate  is  suitable,  is  the  difficulty  in 
washing  it.     Badly  washed,  it  shrinks  in  the  fibre, 
and  the  whole  after  a  time  becomes  smaller,  harder, 
and  probably  less  absorbent.     This  is  the  bar  to  the 
issue  of  pure  woollen  underclothing  for  the  field. 
The  remedy  is  the  admixture  of  about  30  per  cent, 
of  cotton,  making  the  so-called  merino. 

129.  To  wash  woollens  they  should  be  placed  in 
hot  soap-suds  and  moved  about  freely;  they  should 
then  be  plunged  in  cold  water,  and  when  the  soap 
has  disappeared  should  be  hung  up  without  wring- 
ing.    Woollens  should  never  be  rubbed  nor  wrung. 
(Parkes.)     Or  put  the  woollens  into  water  by  them- 
selves ;   do  not  rub  soap  on  them,  but  have  it  abun- 
dant in  the  water;   move   them  about   freely   for 
cleansing;    rinse    them  well,   without    rubbing,   in 
clean  water  of  the  same  temperature ;  hang  them  to 
dry  without  rubbing  or  wringing,  but  be  careful  to 
stretch  them  a  little  while  drying.     The  soap  should 
be  free  from  excess  of  alkali,  which  injures  the  wool 
by  its  action  on  the  natural  fat. 

130.  Whatever  foundation  there  may  be  for  the 
older  opinion  that  an  all-wool  dress  is  a  partial  pre- 
ventive  against  the  malarial   poison  probably  de- 


30  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

pends  on  the  equable  temperature  thus  maintained, 
which  adds  to  the  resistance  of  the  system,  and  to 
the  mechanical  guard  that  its  greater  bulk  presents 
against  the  mosquito. 

131.  Tests  for  woollen  cloth:    When  held  against 
the  light,  it  should  show  a  uniform  texture,  free 
from  holes;  folded  and  suddenly  stretched,  it  should 
give  a  clear  ringing  note;  it  should  resist  well  when 
violently  stretched;   to  the  touch  the  texture  must 
be  smooth  and  soft;   to  the  eye  it  should  be  close 
and  free  from  straggly  hair.     The  heavier  it  is  to 
the  size,  the  better. 

132.  Shoddy  is  old,  used,  and  worked-over  wool 
and  cloth.     It  is  often  mixed  with  fresh  wool,  to  the 
detriment  of  the  latter,  and  is  most  easily  detected 
by  the  tearing  power.     This   adulteration  prevails 
under  the  greed  of  war,  and  should  be  carefully  in- 
spected against. 

133.  Serge  is  a  species  of  worsted  that  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  lightness  combined  with  the  good  qual- 
ities of  the  lesser  woollens.     Closely  woven  cloth, 
whatever  the  material,  takes  up  dust  less  readily  and 
parts  with  it  more  easily  than  that  of  loose  texture. 

Other  Materials. 

134.  Other  materials  used  as  auxiliary  clothing 
are  leather,  canvas,  india-rubber,  and  oiled  cloth. 

135.  Leather  when  properly  tanned  is  practically 
impervious  to  the  wind  and  is  very  warm;  but  it  is 
only  fit  for  rainless  climates,  except  as  foot-gear. 

136.  Canvas  sheds  water  and  is  an  excellent  non- 
conductor of  heat,  and  lined  with  wool  it  is  admira- 
ble against  cold. 


MILITARY   CLOTHING.  31 


1137.  "Slickers,"    made    by    thoroughly    washing 
anvas  and  soaking  it  with  raw  oil  slowly  dried  in 
the  sun,  are  admirable  against  rain,  although  not 

rfficially  recognized. 
138.  India-rubber  has  a  temporary  but  invaluable 
use  against  rain,  but  cannot  be  worn  persistently  on 

K count  of  its  retaining  the  bodily  heat  and  the 
rspiration.  It  loses  its  elasticity  in  very  cold 
climates  and  becomes  too  distensible  in  very  warm 
ones.  It  ultimately  rots  by  the  absorption  of  oxy- 
gen. As  a  water-proof  sheet  to  place  on  the  ground 
it  is  of  great  value. 

139.  India-rubber  may  be  replaced  by  the  applica- 
tion to  ordinary  clothing  of  a  water-proofing  process 
devised  by  Captain  Munson,  Medical  Department. 
Fabrics  thus  treated  do  not  lose  their  shape';  will 
shed  water  under  heavy  rain  for  several  hours; 
their  ventilation  is  unimpaired;  and  there  is  no 
sense  of  bearing  about  wet  clothing.  Animal  mate- 
rials respond  to  the  process  better  than  those  that 
are  vegetable,  but  the  latter  can  be  made  to  shed 
water.  This  quality  is  destroyed  by  boiling  water 
or  strongly  alkaline  soap,  but  it  may  be  renewed  by 
re-immersion  in  the  water-proof  bath. 


Head  Covering. 

140.  The  ideal  military  hat  should  protect  against 
teat,  cold,  rain,  and  the  glare  of  the  sun.     It  should 

be  attractive  on  parade,  convenient  under  arms,  and 
useful  in. bivouac.     Such  has  not  yet  been  found  in 
,ny  service. 

141.  The  newly  adopted  cap  for  garrison  use  is  of 
cloth,  three  and  a  half  inches  deep,  with  an  over- 


32  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

hanging  top.  It  should  afford  an  air  space  above, 
but  it  gives  no  protection  below  the  line  of  contact. 
Its  color  depends  upon  the  duty.  It  would  seem 
practicable  to  use  separate  covers  with  a  common 
frame. 

142.  A  service  hat  of  drab  felt  with  a  moderately 
broad   brim  is  now  issued  for  drills,  marches,  and 
the  field.     It  is    tolerably  high   in  the    crown,  and 
when  this  is  drawn  to  a  peak,  which  at  present  is  for- 
bidden, the  air  space  is  increased  and  rain-water  is 
shed.     It    is    substantially    the    equivalent    of    the 
older  campaign   hat,  which,  although   not   perfect, 
proved  very  acceptable  in  the  field  in  all  climates. 

143.  The  white  or  drab  cork  helmet  is  a  comfort- 
able protection  against  the  fierce  sun,   but  it  is  unfit 
for  cold   seasons  and  is  too  inflexible  for  the  field. 
Properly  made,  it  is  well  ventilated. 

144.  An  ordinary  sportsman's  hat,  with  specially 
high  crown  for  the  tropics,  double  peak,  and  folding 
flaps,  as  evolved  by  hunters,  would  fulfil  the  require- 
ments of  open-air  life.     Of  neutral  color  it  may  be 
decorated  if  desired,  but  it  should  not  be  ornamented 
for  the  field.     For  hot  weather  it  should  be  of  light 
canvas,  and  for  cold  seasons  be  lined.     This  would 
be  light  in  weight,  not  in  the  way  of  the  man's 
weapons,  it  would  be  a  shelter  by  day  and  a  protec- 
tion by  night  in  the  field,  and  it  has  stood  the  test  of 
much  rough  usage  with  the  reputation  of  comfort 
and  durability. 

145.  In  the  tropics  the  nape  of  the  neck  must  be 
guarded  against  the  s*un  by  a  peak  at  the  rear,  the 
crown  should  always  be  high  and  well-ventilated, 
and  a  contained  piece  of  wet  muslin  assists  against 


MILITARY    CLOTHING. 


eat-stroke.  A  stiff  hat  in  hot  climates  should  be 
he'd  away  from  the  head  by  an  inner  band  for  ven- 
tilation. 


Coats. 


146.  The  closely  fitting  dress-coat,  the  most  un- 
ygienic  and  therefore  unmilitary  article  of  a  sol- 
dier's dress,  has  been  discontinued  for  some  years 
for  the  Hospital  Corps,  and  lately  has  been  aban- 
doned by  the  rest  of  the  army.     Nothing  should  ever 
lead  to  its  revival.     It  compressed  the  chest  and 
interfered  with  its  expansion,  and  it  restrained  the 
soldier   from   the   vigorous    exertion   to    which   his 
training  is  directed. 

147.  Dress-coats   will   doubtless    be   retained   for 
the  time  by  State  troops  purely  for  purposes  of  dis- 
play and   attraction,  but  inspecting  officers  should 
always   condemn  those  that  are  tight  and  should 
discourage  their  being  taken  into  the  field.     When 
mustered  into  the  United  States  service,  that  part  of 
the  uniform  should  be  rejected. 

148.  Tight    collars,    whether    of    coats    or   shirts, 
disturb  the  blood-supply  of  the  head,  affect  vision, 
and  may  lead  to  serious  consequences.     The  neck 
should  be  free  from  the  least  compression. 

149.  The  dark-blue  sack-coat,  designated  for  pur- 
poses of  ceremony,  should  always  fit  loosely.     The 
inevitable  tendency  of  the  tailors  will  be  to  make  it 
more  and  more  snug,  and  company  officers  should 
guard  against  that  on  principle.     It  should  never  be 
taken  to  the  tropics  nor  worn  in  the  South  at  home. 

150.  The  present  service  coat,  of  woollen  or  cotton, 
is  wisely  required  to  be  five  inches  in  excess  of  the 


34  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

chest  measurement.  It  contains  two  outside  pockets 
above  and  two  below  the  waist-line,  and  promises  to 
be  very  serviceable.  Except  that  there  is  no  belt 
between  the  body  and  the  skirt  upon  which  the 
waist-belt  of  the  accoutrements  may  fit  accurately, 
this  closely  resembles  in  form,  and  substantially  in 
principle,  the  plan  of  the  hunting-shirt,  the  typical 
military  dress,  that  has  been  advocated  for  years. 
It  should  always  be  loose  enough  for  extra  shirts  to 
be  worn. 

151.  The   objection  formerly  made    to  a  loosely 
fitting  dress  was  to  call  it  slouchy.     That  has  no 
real  force,  for  no  man  held  in  position  by  his  clothes 
is  either  very  vigorous  or  soldierly.     Setting  up,  not 
tight  clothing,  makes  the  martial  figure.     All  cloth- 
ing should  be  neatly  cut,  but  none  should  limit  the 
freest  muscular  action. 

Shirts. 

152.  A  knit  woollen  undershirt,  which  sometimes 
is  unbearable  by  delicate  skins,   and,   formerly  at 
least,  was  too  short,  is  issued.     The  later  issues  are 
better.     It  should  be  one-third  cotton  for  ordinary 
issue  and  in  three  grades  of  thickness.      A  soldier 
should  be  allowed  to  draw  two  sizes,  to  wear  one  over 
the  other  if  necessary.     In  hot  climates  this  should 
be  two-thirds  cotton. 

153.  An  overshirt  of  flannel  is  now  issued.     This 
has  a  rolling  collar  and  breast-pockets,  is  reasonably 
full,  and  may  be  worn  without  the  coat  on  fatigue. 
It  approaches  the  hunting-shirt  and  is  comfortable 
and  useful.     It  should  be  issued  in  three  grades  and 


MILITARY    CLOTHING.  35 


many  sizes,  with  and  without  collars,  for  two  or  more 
to  be  worn  together. 

154.  Animal    heat  is  best    conserved  by  several 
superimposed  similar  garments,  taking  advantage  of 
the  contained  layers  of  air,  which  are  poor  conduc- 
tors.    This  is  the  custom  of  lumbermen  and  ice- 
cutters,  who  discard  overcoats  while  working.     The 
chief  utility  of  overcoats  is  against  storms  and  when 
not  much  independent  motion  of  the  limbs  is  re- 
quired. 

155.  Color  has  no  influence  upon  animal  heat,  but 
dark  colors  absorb  animal  odors;  hence  undershirts 
should  be  light.     All  shirts  should  be  long  enough 
after  washing  to  fully  protect  the  abdomen. 

156.  In  the  field  an  extra  shirt,  for  wearing  next 
the  body,  should  always  be  carried,  and  the  two 
shirts  may  be  worn  alternately.     At  the  close  of  the 
day's  work  the  worn  shirt  should  be  taken  off;  dried, 
stretched,  well  beaten,  and  hung  in  the  wind  and 
sun.     This  should  be  done  even  when  there  is  no 
change. 

157.  The  combination  of  perspiration  and  dust  is 
very  disagreeable  and  hurtful,  and  drawers,  stock- 
ings, and  trousers  should  be  treated  as  the  shirts. 
The  persons  and  underclothing  of  the  men  should  be 
carefully  inspected  for  cleanliness  in  garrison  and  in 
camp. 

158.  Such  inspection  is  frequently  neglected,  be- 
cause not  provided  in  the  drill  regulations.     But  it  is 
important  and  should  properly  be  a  part  of  com- 
pany inspection  in  barracks.     It  should  include  the 
feet,  the  stockings,  the  shirt,  and  the  breast.     A 
convenient  order  is:    "Remove  both  shoes  and  one 


36  NOTES    ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

stocking;    open    coat   and   shirt!     Non-commissioned 
officers  are  excepted!" 

159.  Dirty  troops  are  always  sickly  troops,  and 
men  with  clean  shirts  in  their  knapsacks  at  inspection 
may  wear  soiled  clothes  and  have  dirty  skins. 

Breeches  and  Trousers. 

160.  Breeches  are  about  to  replace  trousers,  ex- 
cepting for  dismounted  dress  occasions  and  strictly 
garrison  duty,  neither  of  which  involves  continuous 
strain.     Breeches  proper  extend  from  the  waist  not 
below  the  knee,  but  these  are  prolonged  to  the  tops 
of  the  shoes.     When  trousers  were  substituted  for 
breeches  in  the  British  army  about  a  hundred  years 
ago,  "the  increased  comfort  to  the  soldier  is  said  to 
have  been  remarkable/7     But  the  discarded  breeches 
did  not  cover  the  leg. 

161.  The  breeches  now  in  use  are  loose  at  the 
knee,  fit  closely  about  the  leg,  and  are  tied  just 
above  the  shoe.     They  match  the  service  coat  in 
color  and  material,  and  are  for  all  mounted  or  dis- 
mounted  duty   out   of   garrison.     Their   fitness   for 
the  purpose  should  be  carefully  observed,  and  on 
occasion  be  reported  upon. 

162.  Blue  cloth  trousers  are  issued  for  dress  occa- 
sions.    The  cloth  should  be  closely  milled,  one  grade 
very  light,  one  medium,  and  one  extra  heavy,  to 
agree  with  the  climate.     But  as  their  use  is  limited 
to  occasions  of  ceremony,  these  differences  are  less 
important  than  formerly. 

163.  Military    trousers    and    breeches    should    be 
large  over  the    lower  pelvis,  snug  over  the  upper 
hips,  with  a  broad  inner  belt  foi*  secondary  support. 


MILITARY   CLOTHING.  37 


belt  is  better  than  suspenders,  although  either  is 
issued.  There  should  be  ample  pockets.  Trousers 
used  by  State  troops  in  the  field  should  be  narrow 
at  the  bottom,  to  stow  within  gaiters.  Where  there 
are  no  gaiters,  the  stockings  are  drawn  over  them  in 
mud  or  dust. 

164.  Leggings    of  cotton  duck  or  canvas  are  re- 
quired for  all  duty  except  that  of  ordinary  garrison 
or  ceremony.     Light  canvas  will  wrinkle  and  light 
leather  is  harsh  when  wetted.     They  should  reach 
nearly  to  the  knee,  and  if  well-fitted  and  clasped  with 
a  spring  are  comfortable.     They  are  liable  when  too 
tight  to  lead  the  feet  and  ankles  to  swell.     Their 
essential  object  is  to  protect   against   sand,  dust, 
and  mud. 

165.  Putties  are  long  bandages  running  from  the 
ankle  to  the  knee.     The  British  troops,  mounted  as 
well  as  foot,  use  them  in  Asia  with  great  satisfaction, 
and  they  appear  to  be  more  acceptable  than  leggings. 
They  are  more  portable  and  more  easily  cleansed. 


Drawers. 


166.  Drawers   are  primarily  for  cleanliness,   sec- 
ondarily for  warmth.     When  too  heavy  the  soldier 
is  tempted  to  discard  them  in  hot  weather,  to  his 
ultimate  discomfort  and  occasional  risk  of  health. 
They  should  be  of  three  grades  and  many  sizes  and 
be  large  in  the  seat. 

Stockings. 

167.  Stockings  are  issued  in  woollen  and  cotton. 
Woollen  stockings  frequently  cause  free  perspiration 


38  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

even  in  the  winter,  when  the  retention  of  moisture 
chills  the  feet. 

168.  Wet   feet   may   be   uncomfortable,   but   are 
rarely  harmful  to  a  man  in  good  health  who  is  tak- 
ing active  exercise.     It  is  when  he  allows  himself  to 
be  chilled  or  to  be  inactive  that  he  takes  cold. 

169.  A  wet  skin  or  wet  feet  under  extreme  cold 
are  dangerous.     An  experienced  man  who  has  broken 
through  the  ice  in  the  bitter  weather  of  the  Northwest 
will  not  attempt  to  proceed  until  he  has  dried  himself 
and  his  clothes,  stripping  if  necessary  to  do  it,  regard- 
less of  the  temperature,  and  making  if  possible  some 
sort  of  fire. 

Shoes. 

170.  Campaigns  are  won  by  marching,  and  sol- 
diers cannot  march  with  crippled  feet.     Even  in  the 
cavalry  a  large  part  of  the  duty  is  performed  on 
foot,  and  shoes  are  potent  to  preserve  or  to  damage 
those  important  members. 

171.  A  good  shoe  should  have  a  thick,  wide  sole  to 
project  beyond  the  upper  leather;  a  low,  broad  heel; 
no   seams   to   press   upon   the  skin;    when   sewed, 
thread  well  waxed  and  stitches  numerous;    should 
allow  one-tenth  in  length  and  more  in  breadth  for 
the  expansion  of  the  foot;   should  be  large  enough 
across  the  instep,  but  nowhere  too  large  nor  with 
rough  inner  seams,  lest  the  folds  made  in  fasten- 
ing   chafe    and   the  friction    of    the   moving   shoe 
blister. 

172.  A  common  error  is  an  excess  of  leather  in 
front  of,  and  a  deficiency  over,  the  instep.     A  good 
marching-shoe    should  be  high  enough  to  embrace 


MILITARY   CLOTHING.  39. 

the  ankle,  and  if  with  a  slit  and  a  tongue  in  the  front, 
like  a  hunting-shoe,  so  much  the  better. 

173.  Good  shoes  will  last  about  two  months  in  con- 
stantly marching  over  reasonably  rough  roads,  and 
much  longer  under  more  favorable  conditions.     But 
only  brass-screwed  or  hob-nailed  soles  will  withstand 
marching  in  climate  and  soil  like  those  of  Arizona. 
The  best  heels  have  a  narrow  iron  rim. 

174.  Campaign  shoes  weigh  2f  Ibs.  a  pair,  and  the 
!    extra  pair  required  to  be  carried  is  a  heavy  tax  for 

infantry  to  bear.  The  barrack  shoe,  or  a  similar 
water-proof  shoe,  might  be  taken  for  the  camp ;  and 
men  should  be  taught  to  cobble,  which  is  not  diffi- 
cult, and  to  apply  glued  patches,  and  to  keep  their 
marching-shoes  well  oiled  and  water-proofed. 

175.  In  the  tropics,  a  light  sandal  for  camps  and 
garrisons  would  be  convenient.     The  more  nearly 
the  foot  is  bare,  the  cooler  and  the  more  frequently 
washed  will  it  be. 

176.  There  should  be  a  standard  shoe  with  numer- 
ous sizes,  to  which  the  men  should  be  confined. 
Few  recruits  are  competent  to  judge  of  the  suitabil- 
ity of  a  shoe,  and  they  may  easily  damage  their  feet 
seriously.     Unceasing  and  intelligent  vigilance  by 

«mpany  officers  is  necessary  to  guide  them. 
177.  Good  marching  is  the  complement  and  some- 
times the  equivalent  of  good  fighting;    and  careful 
inspection  of  the  feet  and  instruction  as  to  their  care 
are  necessary,  especially  with  raw  troops. 

178.  An  nfantry  officer  should  be  as  solicitous  as 
to  the  care  of  his  men's  feet  as  a  cavalry  officer  is  of 
his  horses'.  By  frequent  stated  inspections  he 
should  make  sure  that  the  nails  are  well  trimmed 


40  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

directly  across  the  toe,  that  corns  or  chafes  are 
not  developing,  and  that  the  whole  extremity  is 
clean. 

179.  When  unaccustomed  to  marching,  the  feet 
should  be  well  soaped  or  greased  before  starting,  to 
prevent  chafing.      At    the  end  of    the  march  they 
should  be  washed  or  wiped  very  clean  and  dry,  for 
which   a   very   little   water  is   sufficient.     The  feet 
may  be  toughened  by  soaking  in  a  strong  tepid  solu- 
tion of  alum  when  practicable. 

180.  A  blister  should  be  opened  by  a  small  hole  at 
the  lowest  point,  allowing  the  fluid  to  drain.     The 
skin  should  not  be  torn.     For  positively  sore  feet 
the  man  should  promptly  report  sick,   which  will 
shorten  the  disability  and  relieve  the  misery. 

181.  This  powder,  adopted  from  the  Germans,  is 
very  useful  in  preventing  sore  feet:    Salicylic  acid 
three  parts,  starch  ten  parts,  pulverized  soapstone 
eighty-seven  parts,  each  by  weight.     It  is  sifted  in 
the  shoes  and  stockings  to  keep  the  feet  dry,  to  pre- 
vent chafing,  and  to  heal  sore  spots.     It  may  be 
more  economically  used  as  an  ointment. 

182.'  Soldiers  disqualified  from  marching  from 
their  own  neglect  should  be  disciplined. 

Other  Articles  of  Clothing. 

183.  The  soldiers7  overcoat,  like  that  for  officers, 
is  of  olive-drab  woollen,  double-breasted,  loose,  ex- 
tending eight  or  ten  inches  below  the  knees  with  a 
detachable  hood  for  inclement  weather.  The  skirt 
may  be  turned  back  for  marching.  It  has  no  cape. 
Water-proof  overcoats  or  capes  of  the  service  color 
may  be  worn  on  duty  in  inclement  weather.  The 


MILITARY    CLOTHING.  41 

comfort  of  the   overcoat   is  still  more  improved  in 
very  cold  climates  by  lining  it. 

184.  The  regulation  woollen  blanket  is  five  and 
a  half  by  seven  feet  and  weighs  five  pounds.     A  sol- 
dier should  not  be  separated  from  it,  and  in  war 
most  careful  inspection  is  required  to  maintain  its 
quality. 

185.  Rubber  ponchoes  admirably  protect  against 
rain  or  ground-moisture.     When  lying  upon  one  on 
damp  ground  a  man  is  spared  very  much  risk,  but  he 
will  not  be  protected  from  the  subjacent  cold  by  the 
water-proof  alone. 

186.  Fatigue  suits  of  brown  cotton  duck  may  be 
worn  alone  or  over  the  uniform  on  stable  or  fatigue 
duty,  or  with  fixed  guns  and  emplacements.     Drab 
leather  gloves  are  worn  with  the  service  uniform, 
and  white  wool  or  Berlin  at  dismounted  ceremonies. 
Both  of  these  are  for  protective  rather  than  strictly 
sanitary  ends. 

187.  The  special  articles,  such  as  hoods,  gloves, 
overshoes,  and  overcoats  of  extra  warmth,  issued 
for  protection  against  very  severe  weather,  are  fully 
justified  by  the  causes  leading  to  their  introduction 
and  the  results,  folio  wing  their  use. 

188.  Formerly  15  per  cent,  of  exposed  garrisons 
were  off  duty  several  weeks  each  winter  from  frost- 
bite, not  to  speak  of  inability  to  take  the  field.     Now 
frost-bite  on  duty  in  men  thus  protected  is  very  rare. 

189.  Abdominal  protectors  (small  aprons  made  of 
two  thicknesses  of  flannel  sewed  or  quilted  together 
and  worn  next  the  skin  over  the  bowels)  materially 
lessen    those    bowel    affections    that  depend   upon 
abrupt    changes    of    temperature.     These    are    not 


42  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

issued,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not 
be  in  subtropical  climates,  and  elsewhere  on 
occasion. 

190.  Abdominal  protectors  are  not   belts  and  do 
not    roll  up  like  the  flannel  belt.      They  are  sus- 
pended from  a  tape  that  passes  around  the  body 
and  ties  in  front,  and  they  lie  easily  in  place. 

191.  Men   should   be   encouraged   to   mend  their 
own  clothing,  independently  of  craftsmen.     A  little 
systematic  instruction  in  sewing  would  be  labor  well 
expended.     Soldiers  should  sew  as  well  as  sailors. 

192.  The  subject  of  clothes  deserves  careful  and 
constant  attention  by  officers  serving  with  troops. 
Administrative  officers  in  the  central  bureaus  must 
depend  in  great  part  upon  the  reports  of  company 
officers  as  to  the  results  reached  and  the  deficiencies 
to  be  corrected.     But  such  reports  should  be  made 
after   well-considered   study,    for   thoughtless   com- 
plaint and  immature  advice  are  worse  than  none. 


III. 

• 

FOOD. 

193.  "Force  manifested  in  the  living  body  must 
be   the   correlative   expression   of   force   previously 
latent  in  the  food  eaten  or  the  tissue  formed."     That 
is,  a  soldier's  food  must  be  adequate  to  repair  the 
ordinary  wear  and  tear  and,  if  unfortunately  he  is 
yet  a  growing  lad,  to  supply  additional  tissue. 

194.  Food  supplies  energy  and  animal  heat,  partly 
directly  and  partly  by  replacing  expended  tissue. 
There  are  five  general  classes   of  food,   viz.:    the 
albuminates    (flesh);    the  hydrocarbons  (fats);    the 
carbohydrates   (starch  and  sugar);    the  salts;    and 
water.     In  one  sense  the  air  also  may  be  called  a 
food.     These   are  combined  in  two  groups,  the  ni- 
trogenous and  the  non-nitrogenotis. 

195.  The  nitrogenous  substances  are  necessary  in 
the  manifestations  of  energy.     "  Every  structure  in 
the  body  in  which  any  form  of  energy  is  manifested, 
as  heat,  mechanical  motion,  chemical  or  electrical 
action,    is    nitrogenous."     (Parkes.)     The    presence 
of  nitrogen  controls  the  absorption  of  oxygen  from 
the  atmosphere.     "The  absorption  of  oxygen  does 
not  determine  the  changes  in  the  tissues,  but  the 
changes  in  the  tissues  determine  the  absorption  of 
oxygen."     (Parkes.) 

43 


44  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

196.  Life  is  really  a  form  of  motion.     It  is  main- 
tained by  the  assimilation  into  the  body  of  new  par- 
ticles to  replace  those  worn  out  and  rejected.     The 
moment  a  tissue  or  a  body  is  microscopically  at  rest, 
it  is  dead. 

197.  The     albuminates,  or    albuminoids,    receive 
their  class  name  from  their  most  marked  ingredient 
— albumen.      Albumen    is    a    complex    substance, 
chiefly    remarkable    for    the    presence    of    nitrogen 
(N)  and   of   a  little   sulphur    (S).     Its   formula   is 

o^H^AaS- 

198.  The  albuminates  are  found  in  the  flesh  and 
blood  of  animals,  in  milk  as  casein,  in  seeds,  espe- 
cially in  legumes,  and  in  a  certain  proportion  in  the 
gluten  of  wheat  and  in  other  cereals.     The  various 
albuminates  are  not  identical,  but  are  similar,  and 
viewed   as  food,  their  value  rests  upon  their  con- 
tained N. 

199.  The  starches  and  sugars  are  generally  grouped 
together    as     carbohydrates.     Starch,     C6H10O5,    is 
found  in  all  cereals,  especially  in  wheat,  oats,  maize, 
barley,  and  rye;   in  the  legumes  or  pulses;   in  rice, 
buckwheat,  etc.;  in  the  potato;  in  carrots,  parsnips, 
and   turnips.     Under  the  action    of    saliva    in  the 
process    of    digestion,  and  by  the  aid  of    cookery, 
starch  is  converted  into  dextrine  of  identical  chem- 
ical   compositon  and  into  grape-sugar,  or    glucose, 
C«H1206H20. 

200.  Cane-sugar,  C12H12On,  is  also  converted  into 
grape-sugar  early  in  the  process  of  digestion,  and  in 
the  liver  it  is  transformed  into  glycogen,  or  animal 
starch,  C5H10O5.     This  is  stored  up  in  the  body,  to 
be  called  on  as  needed.     The  surplusage  of  grape- 


FOOD.  45 

sugar  goes  to  make  fat,  and  that  sweets  are  fattening 
is  notorious. 

201.  The  hydrocarbons,  generally  known  as  the 
fats,  contain  much  more  H  and  C  and  much  less  O 
than  the  carbohydrates.     The  formula  is  C10H18O. 
The  physiology  of  fat  and  of  its  digestion  is  yet  very 
obscure,  and  only  the  rudiments  of  the  current  belief 
about  it  follow. 

202.  The  hydrocarbons  are  derived  from  the  fats 
and    oils   of  commerce,  but    the  fat  stored  in  the 
body   is    chiefly    derived   from   the    carbohydrates. 
There  is  no  present  proof  that  fat  is  stored  in  the  body 
as  fat.     Fat  taken  as  food  is  broken  up  in  fine  parti- 
cles in  the  intestines  and  absorbed  there.     It  is  be- 
lieved that  part  of  it  is  taken  up  in  the  tissues  and 
the  rest  is  burnt  as  fuel.     Fat  seems  essential  to  all 
growth,  and  hence  especially  necessary  to  growing 
youth. 

203.  Fat  as  food  is  generally  objectionable  to  the 
stomach  in  health,  and  its  grosser  forms  are  apt  to 
disgust    the    appetite.     But    the    wise    instincts    of 
nature  allow  much  more  of  the  animal  fats  to  be 
eaten  in  cold  than  in  warm  climates.     In  the  warmer 
latitudes  the  vegetable  oils  are  freely  consumed. 

204.  The  main  point  to  be  remembered  is  that 
both  carbohydrates  (sugars  and  starches)  and  hydro- 
carbons (fats  and  oils)  are  necessary  parts  of  human 
diet. 

205.  The  inorganic  salts  are  chiefly  chlorides  and 
phosphates,  compounds  of  calcium,  potassium,  and 
sodium,  not  great  in  amount  but  important,  and 
generally  supplied  in  composition  with  the  ordinary 
alimentary  substances. 


46  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

' 

206.  The  value  of  common  salt  (NaCl)  is  notori- 
ous.    It  is  found  in  every  tissue  except  the  enamel 
of  the  teeth,  it  assists  digestion,  and  in  part  regulates 
the   passage   of   fluids   through   the   denser   tissues. 
The  importance  of  salt  as  a  preservative  of  food  is  so 
great  that  the  destruction  of  an  enemy's  salt-works 
is  frequently  as  serious  a  blow  as  the  demolition  of 
a  powder-depot. 

207.  Lime   is  required  to  make  bone,  and  potas- 
sium to  make  blood  and  muscle,  both  being  taken  up 
from  ordinary  food. 

208.  The  vegetable  salts,  the  lactates,  tart  rates, 
citrates,    and   acetates,    become   carbonates   in   the 
blood,  maintaining  its  alkalinity.     These  are  pecul- 
iarly important,  because    scurvy  appears    in    their 
absence.     The  acids  from  which  these  salts  are  de- 
rived exist  chiefly  in  fresh  vegetables.     Their  nutri- 
tive value  is  small,  but  it  is  a  well-known  principle  of 
dietetics  that  they  must  be  supplied  as  antiscor- 
butics. 

209.  Water  is  not  strictly  a  food,  inasmuch  as  "it 
undergoes  no  change,  no  chemical  alteration,  in  the 
body,  and  hence  is  not  susceptible  of  liberating  force. 
But  it  contributes  to  chemical  change  by  supplying 
a   necessary   condition   for  its   occurrence  in   other 
bodies/7     Water  makes  that  solution  of  the  food 
which  is   necessary   for   digestion;    the  tissues   are 
bathed  in  fluid,  and  our  secretions  and  excretions  in 
great   part   escape   in   water.     It   carries   the   solid 
infinitesimal  tissue-making  particles  all  through  the 
body  and  bears  away  excrementitious  matter. 

210.  A  man  dies  of  thirst  sooner  than  of  hunger, 
and  the  wounded  require  water  to  supply  an  essential 


FOOD.  47 

element  in  the  escaping  blood,  and  to  maintain  a 
sufficient  bulk  in  the  circulating  fluid.  Water  is 
also  of  peculiar  hygienic  importance  as  one  of  the 
most  common  avenues  for  the  introduction  of  seri- 
ous disease. 

211.  The  practical  point  of  military  dietetics  to 
determine  is,  what  food  is  necessary  for  the  repair  of 
waste  in  soldiers  and  how  it  is  to  be  supplied.     The 
salts,  being  generally  found  in  sufficient  quantities 
in  ordinary  alimentary  substances,  need  not  be  con- 
sidered. 

212.  On  the  fundamental  principle  that  it  is  the 
province  of  food  to  supply  energy  and  animal  heat, 
the  general  proposition  is  that  C  and  N  represent  the 
required  materials,  and  that  man  needs  about  fifteen 
times  as  much  C  as  N. 

213.  Practically   the    albuminates    are   the    chief 
sources  of  the  nitrogen,  and  the  fats,  starches,  and 
sugars  supply  the  carbon;  but  almost  every  food  con- 
tains both  elements.      Thus  starchy  food  does  not 
contain  starch  alone,  but  it    is  chiefly  starch,  and 
the  albuminates  carry  starches  with  them. 

214.  The  problem  of  all  diets  is  to  secure  the 
proper  proportion  of  each  class  and  form  of  food  at  a 
practicable  cost,   and  to  utilize  it  without  undue 
strain  upon  the  animal  economy.     A  military  diet 
must  be  sufficiently  palatable  for  long-continued  use, 
and  be  compact  enough  for  convenient  transportation. 

215.  Confining  a  man  to  a  meat  diet  would  require 
him  to  absorb  four  times  as  much  nitrogen  as  neces- 
sary in  order  to  get  sufficient  carbon;    or  a  bread 
diet  would  overload  him  with  carbon  before  he  re- 
ceived enough  nitrogen. 


48  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

216.  To  supply  the  desirable  N  and  C  by  one  kind 
of  food  alone  would  require  6^  Ibs.  of  flesh,  or  4£  Ibs. 
of  bread,  or  15  Ibs.  of  potatoes  a  day,  and  this  at  the 
risk  of  disease  from  the  surplus,  supposing  the  whole 
to  be  digested.     The  albumen  of  flesh  must  there- 
fore   be    supplemented    by    fats,    starches,    sugars, 
organic  acids,  salts,  etc.,  and  bread  requires  flesh; 
fat,  etc. 

217.  All  food  contains  water  in  mechanical  com- 
bination, which  is  disregarded  in  calculating  the  nu- 
tritive value.     Therefore  in  determining  the  amount 
of  real  food,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  con- 
tained water  as  about  50  per  cent,  additional. 

218.  Parkes  makes  this  estimate  of  the  daily  water- 
free  food  necessary  for  a  soldier: 

Garrison. 
Ounces. 

Albuminates  (flesh) 4.31 

Hydrocarbons  (fats) 3 . 53 

Carbohydrates  (starches  and  sugars) . ' .  .    11.71 
Salts..  1.10 


20.65  26.7-31 


For    other  tables   see   pars.   374-76.      Besides   the 
solids,  from  3  to  5  pints  of  liquids  are  taken  daily. 

219.  But  under  conditions  of  enforced  inactivity, 
and  especially  where  privation  compels,  life  may  be 
sustained  on  much  less  than  the  standard.     Thus  at 
the  siege  of  Paris  inactive  persons  subsisted  on  1  oz. 
meat  and  10  oz.  bread  per  diem. 

220.  The  ration  is  the  established  allowance  of 
food  for  one  person  for  one  day,  not  for  one  meal,  as 
many  non-military  people  suppose.     It  varies  with 
the  duty  of  the  troops,  so  that  there  are  four  stand- 


FOOD.  49 

ards,  viz.,  garrison,  field,  travel,  and  emergency. 
Troops  in  Alaska  have  an  additional  allowance. 
The  elasticity  of  the  formal  ration  is  increased  by 
the  privilege  of  exchanging  some  of  its  components 
for  other  articles  of  food.  The  use  made  of  the 
ration  by  the  company  officer  demonstrates  one 
form  of  his  administrative  ability,  as  well  as  the 
degree  of  his  interest  in  his  men. 

221.  Garrison  life  practically  corresponds  to  the 
"life  of  activity"  of  the  physiologists,  and  that  of 
the  field  is  equivalent  to  their  standard  "hard  labor." 
Where  the  ration  is  deficient,  additional  flour  and 
other  articles  are  purchased  by  money  derived  from 
the  sale  of  some  of  the  unconsumed  components, 
such  as  bacon,  sugar,  coffee,  soap,  candles,  and  vine- 
gar;   by  adding    produce    from  the  gardens,  when 
circumstances  permit  their  cultivation;    exception- 
ally by  the  results  of  hunting  and  fishing;   and  by 
the  company's  share  of  the  profits  of  the  post  bakery 
and  the  post  exchange.     The  soldier's  pay  is  never 
"stopped"  for  the  purchase  of  food,  and  voluntary 
contributions  are  very  rarely  made  or  desired. 

222.  The  consumption  of  the  regulation  ration  in 
garrison  is  so  variable  owing  to  barter,  sale,  and.  pur- 
chase, cultivation,  etc.,  that  it  is  useless  to  attempt 
to  judge  of  its  fitness  in  one  place  from  its  suitability 
to  another.     Sugar  and  coffee  should  be  saved  only 
when  the  albuminates  are  so. low  as  to  require  their 
transmutation  into  nitrogenous  food. 

223.  The  idea  that  the  ration  is  in  excess  receives 
color  from  the  excess  of  fats  and  salts  in  the  bacon, 
and  from  the  possibility  of  the  sale  of  part  of  it  when 
all  bacon  is  issued.    In  the  field,  where  it  is  most 


50  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

important,  the  ration  is  least  elastic  and  no  back 
rations  are  issued. 

224.  The  practical  question  at  the  bottom  of  any 
discussion  of  the  ration  is:  Are  the  meat  and  the 
bread  sufficient?    When  of  good  quality  the  beef 
ration  is  sufficient,  especially  when  issued  in  such 
amounts  that  there  is  little  relative  wastage.     The 
regulation  ration  of  soft  bread  is  18  oz.,  and  is  not 
always  sufficient  for  emergencies.     It  may  be  in- 
creased to  20  oz.,  at  the  option  of  the  council  of  ad- 
ministration,   by    employing    the    bakery    savings. 
During  a  part  of  the  Civil  War  22  oz.  of  soft  bread 
or  flour  was  issued,  and  also  30  Ibs.  of  potatoes,  to 
the  hundred  rations. 

225.  The  present  law  adds  1  Ib.  of  fresh  vegetables 
to  the  ration.     This  may  be  issued  as  100  per  cent, 
fresh  potatoes,  or  80  per  cent,  fresh  potatoes  and 
20  per  cent,  fresh  onions,  or  70  per  cent,  fresh  pota- 
toes and  30  per  cent,  canned  tomatoes  or  other  vege- 
tables.    The  Subsistence  Department  purchases  no 
savings  of  these.     Unfortunately  in  the  field,  where 
these  are  most  needed,  questions  of  transportation 
and  other  difficulties  sometimes  limit  the  issue. 

226.  The  following  is  a  table  of  the  authorized 
garrison  and  field  rations,  the  latter  differing  from 
the  former  chiefly  in  being  less  elastic. 

TABLE    OF    RATIONS. 

Garrison.         Field. 
Oz.  Oz. 

Fresh  beef 20  20 

or     Fresh  mutton  (at  no  greater  cost) 20  20 

or     Bacon 12  12 

11     ,  in  Alaska 16 

or     Salt  pork 16 

"       "    ,  in  Alaska,  when  desired 16 


FOOD.  51 

Garrison.       Field. 
Oz.  Oz. 

Canned  meat,  when  fresh  cannot  be  sup- 
plied     16 

or     Dried  fish 14 

or     Pickled  fish 18 

or     Canned  fish 16 

or     Salt  beef,  in  Alaska 22 

and  Flour 18  18 

or     Soft  bread   18  18 

or     Hard  bread,   only   when  flour  or  soft 

brsad  cannot  be  used 16 

or     Corn-meal 20 

or     Hard  bread 16 

and  Baking  powder   (when  ovens  are  not 

available) .64 

or     Hops  (when  ovens  are  available) .02 

or     Dried  or  compressed  yeast  (ovens  avail- 
able). . .04 

and  Beans 2.4  2.4 

or     Pease ;..     2.4 

or     Rice 1.6  1.6 

or     Hominy 1.6 

and  Potatoes  (procurable  locally  for  the  field)  16  16 

or     Potatoes          "  "  '   '"     "      "      12.8  12.8 

and  Onions  "      "     "      H        3.2  3.2 

or     Potatoes 12.8 

and  Canned  tomatoes 3.2 

or     Potatoes 11.2 

and  Other  fresh  (not   canned)   vegetables, 
obtained    locally    or    transported    in 

wholesome  state. 4.8 

or     Desiccated  vegetables,  when  fresh  can- 
not be  furnished 2.4  2.4 

or     Desiccated  potatoes 1 .92 

and          ' '  onions .48 

or  "  potatoes 1.92 

and  Canned  tomatoes 3.2 

(In  Alaska,  fresh  vegetables  24  instead  of  16  oz.,  and  desic- 
cated vegetables  3}  instead  of  2|  oz.) 


52  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

TABLE  OF  RATIONS — Continued. 

Garrison.         Field 
Oz.  Oz. 

and  Dried  or  evaporated  prunes 1.6 

or        "      "  "          apples 1.6 

or        "      "  "          peaches . .      1.6 

(When  practicable,  30  per  cent,  to  be 
primes.) 

and  Jam  in  cans 1.4 

and  Coffee,  green 1.6 

or         ' '     ,  roasted,  and  ground 1 . 28  1 . 28 

or     Tea,  black  or  green 32  .32 

and  Sugar 3.2  3.2 

and  Vinegar gill       .32  .32 

or          "       "         .16  .16 

and  Cucumber  pickles "         .16  .16 

and  Salt 64  .64 

and  Pepper 04  .04 

and  Soap 64  .64 

and  Candles,  when  necessary  for  illumination        .24  .24 

and  Candles,  in  Alaska 32 

227.  When  the  ration  was  not  quite  as  elaborate 
as  now,  medical  officers  of  experience  expressed  the 
opinion   that    the    flour    or    soft-bread    component 
should  always  be  22  oz.,  except  when  on  fatigue, 
when  it  should  be  24  oz.;   and  that  4.8  oz.  of  flour 
should  always  be  added  to  the  hard  bread.     That 
is  good  advice.     The  bread  is  not  quite  sufficient 
for  a  hungry  vigorous  man.      When  corn-meal  is 
issued,  they  thought  24  instead  of  20  oz.  should  be 
the    allowance.     They    also    thought    that    9.6    oz. 
instead  of   16  oz.,  or  60  Ibs.  to  the  100  rations,  of 
potatoes,  and  .24  instead  of  .32  oz.  of  tea  would  be 
sufficient.     All  these  are  commended. 

228.  Ordinarily  fresh  meat  is  issued  seven  days  in 
ten  and  salt  meat  or  fish  the  other  three.     The  issue 
of  fish  is  a  substitute  for  that  of  salt  meat.     When, 


FOOD. 


53 


as  sometimes  happens,  neither  fresh  meat  nor  the 
vegetable  components  can  be  supplied,  a  canned 
fresh-beef-and-vegetable  stew,  at  the  rate  of  28*  oz. 
a  ration,  may  be  issued. 

229.  The   Subsistence   Department  purchases  no 
savings  of  fresh  vegetables.     They  may  sometimes 
be  sold  to  civilians  and  other  forms  of  food,  as  eggs 
or  butter,  purchased,  but  the  design  of  the  govern- 
ment  is    to    encourage   their    actual    consumption. 
Unfortunately,. in  the  field  where  they  are  most 
needed,  questions  of  transportation  and  other  diffi 
culties  sometimes  limit  the  issue  and,  issue-day  hav- 
ing passed,  back  rations  cannot  be  secured. 

230.  The  travel  ration  is  issued  to  troops  when  sep- 
arated for  short  periods  from  cooking  facilities.     It 
consists  of 

Per  hundred  rations. 

Canned  corned  beef 75    Ibs. 

or     Corned  beef  hash 75 

and  Soft  bread 1124 

»or     Hard  bread 10° 
and  Baked  beans 
and  Canned  tomatoes 50 
and  Coffee,  roasted  and  ground 8 

and  Sugar 15 

In  lieu  of  coffee  and  sugar  as  such,  21  cents  a  day  per 
ration  is  allowed  for  the  purchase  of  liquid  coffee. 

231.  The  food  of  troops  on  transports  is  the  garri- 
son ration,  modified  at  discretion  by  the  substitution 
of  articles  of  equal  money  value  from  a  large  variety 
of  other  subsistence  stores  kept  for  sale  on  the  ship. 

Emergency  Supplies  and  Concentrated  Food. 

232.  Life  and  vigor  can  be  sustained  for  a  few 
days  with  some  loss  of  weight  on  less  than  the  stand- 


54  NOTES   ON   MILITARY  HYGIENE. 

ard  allowance  of  food.  Theoretically  the  minimum 
amount  is  11  oz.  a  day  and  the  maximum  time  one 
week. 

233.  Practically,  five  days'  full  rations  of  hard 
bread,  bacon,  and  coffee,  especially  if  a  little  pea- 
meal  is  added  for  soup-making,   and  tobacco  for 
those  dependent  upon  it,  will  maintain  with  trifling 
loss  of  weight  the  health  and  vigor  of  men  actively 
engaged  for  at  least  ten  days.     The  half  ration  con- 
tains rather  more  of  the  food  elements  than  a  mere 
subsistence  diet  calls  for.     But  the  loss  must  be 
made  up  later. 

234.  The   German  pea  sausage,   formerly  highly 
extolled,  is  probably  overrated  as  a  constant  diet. 
It  consists  of  pea-flour,  fat  pork,  and  a  little  salt,  and 
is  issued  cooked.     It  readily  makes  soup. 

235.  Mixing  together,  cooking,  and  baking  1  Ib. 
each  of  flour  and  meat,  i  Ib.  suet,  £  Ib.  of  potatoes, 
with  a  little  sugar,  onions,  salt,  pepper,  and  spices, 
makes  a  meat  biscuit  that  contains  about  10  per  cent, 
water  and  keeps  unchanged  four  months.     (Parkes.) 

236.  Concentrated  foods  develop  force,  but  do  not 
supply  tissue-loss,  and  troops  operating  under  their 
spur  must  have  sleep  and  the  carbohydrates  after- 
ward.    This  is  important. 

237.  The   United   States   emergency   ration   con- 
sists of  three  ounce-and-a-half  cakes  of  equal  parts 
of  pure  chocolate  and  pure  sugar,  and  of  three  four- 
ounce  cakes  of  meat  and  wheat.     These  last  con- 
sist of  sixteen  parts  of  specially  prepared  desiccated 
meat  flour,  thirty-two  parts  of  coarse  wheat-powder 
and  one  of  salt,  all  by  weight,  homogeneously  mixed. 
These,  with  three-fourths  ounce  of  fine  salt  and  one 


FOOD.  55 

gram  of  black  pepper,  are  intended  to  subsist  a  man 
one  day.  The  whole  are  issued  in  a  metallic  case, 
to  be  opened  only  by  an  officer's  order  or  in  emer- 
gency. The  meat  and  bread  may  be  eaten  dry  or 
be  stirred  into  cold  water  and  eaten;  one  cake  may 
be  dissolved  in  three  pints  of  water,  boiled  at  least 
five  minutes,  seasoned,  and  taken  as  soup;  or  one 
cake  may  be  boiled  in  one  pint  of  water  five  minutes 
to  make  a  thick  porridge.  This  may  be  eaten  hot 
or  cold,  or  when  cold  it  may  be  sliced  and  fried 
with  any  available  fat. 

238.  Pemmican,  consisting  of  lean  beef  well  dried, 
shredded,    mixed    with   tallow,    charged   with   cur- 
rants or  similar  fruit  or  sugar,  and  compressed  into 
compact  cakes,  contains  much  nutriment  in  moder- 
ate  bulk   and   keeps   indefinitely.     It  is   peculiarly 
suited  for    arctic  service,  and  is  well  adapted  for 
winter  expeditions  in  Alaska. 

239.  The  extract  of  beef  might  make  an  emer- 
gency ration  for  special  occasions,  as  for  pickets  and 
forced   marches.     It   would   be   particularly   useful 
after  battle,  and  if  each  man  could  be  induced  to 
preserve  a  package  on  his  person  it  would  be  of  great 
service  to  the  wounded.     It  is  a  heart  stimulant, 
and  removes  the  sense  of  fatigue  instead  of  acting  as 
a  true  food. 

240.  The  medicinal  use  of  kola  certainly  removes 
or  greatly  lessens  the  sense  of  fatigue  and  extends 
the  limit  of  muscular  exertion.     It  should  not  be 
used   indiscriminately   nor   be   depended   upon   in- 
definitely. 


56  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  HYGIENE. 

ARTICLES  OF  THE  RATION. 
Beef. 

241.  The  ration  of  beef  is  estimated  on  the  basis 
of  the  raw  issue.     There  is  a  waste  of  5  per  cent,  in 
cutting  up  the  carcass.     A  fair  proportion  of  bone  in 
beef  is  20  per  cent.     In  cooking,  meat  shrinks  about 
25  per  cent,  in  weight. 

242.  The  issue  of  beef  is  sufficient  when  the  quality 
is  good,  but  no  savings  of  beef  are  purchased  by 
the  government.     Savings  may  be  sold  to  civilians 
or  exchanged.     It.  is  insufficient  when  taken  from 
tough  Texas  cattle,  or  when  issued  in  the  spring  from 
frozen    carcasses    slaughtered   in    the    autumn.     In 
cooking  such  meat  the  loss  is  believed  to  be  10  per 
cent,  more  than  with  fresh  meat. 

243.  Very  acceptable  fresh  meat  has  been  supplied 
troops  in  the  Philippines  from  modern  refrigerating 
ships,  especially  those  from  Australia.     This  is  dis- 
tinct from  ordinary  frozen  meat. 

244.  Beef  for  issue  should  be  well  grown  and  nour- 
ished,  and   cattle   are   best   about   four  years   old. 
Steers  should  weigh  about  1000  pounds.     The  pro- 
portion of  forequarters  to  hindquarters  is  about  8  to 
7.     The  weight  is  best  determined  by  putting  aver- 
age samples  on  the  scales.     Sixty  per  cent,  of  the 
live  weight  is  the  average  net  weight. 

245.  When   weighing   is   impracticable,   use   this 
formula : 

l  =  W  (net). 


C= girth   behind   shoulder-blades;    L= length  from 
front  of  shoulder-blades  to  root  of  tail;    42  pounds 


FOOD.  57 

=  cubic  foot  of  flesh;  W  =  weight.  (C  =  circ.;  008 
=  .07958;  C2X. 08  =  contents.) 

Or  C2X5L-1.5  =  TF. 

If  fat,  divide  by  1.425;  if  lean,  by  1.575.  In  tem- 
perate climates  beef  should  be  killed  24-36  hours 
before  issue;  in  hot  climates,  8-10  hours. 

246.  Good  beef  should  have  about  20  per  cent, 
bone;  the  fat  should  be  firm  and  sufficient,  but  not 
in  excess,  and   the   flesh  firm,  elastic,  and  marbled 
from  little  veins  running  through  it.     From  good 
meat  placed  on  a  white  plate  a  little  reddish  fluid 
will  be  found  to  exude.     This  is  not  a  bad  indication, 
as  it  is  sometimes  thought  to  be. 

247.  The  flesh  of  young  animals  is  pale  and  moist, 
and  that  of  old  animals  is  dark.     A  deep  purple  indi- 
cates that  the  animal  has  died  with  the  blood  in  it. 
Blood  is  objectionable,  not  because  it  is  unhealthy 
in  itself,  but  because  it  decomposes  very  rapidly. 

248.  None  of  the  meat  should  be  livid,  and  the 
interior  should  be  the  same  color  or  a  little  paler 
than  the  surface.    There  should  be  no  softening,  nor 
fluid  within  the  tissues.     In  commencing  putrefac- 
tion the  color  is  first  paler  and  later  greenish,  and 
the  odor  disagreeable. 

To  COOK  MEAT. 
Bailing. 

249.  For  boiling,  the  pieces  (of  any  meat)  should 
be  as  large  as  possible  and  be  plunged  into  boiling 
water  to  coagulate  the  albumen  in  the  exterior  layer, 
and  thus  retain  the  inner  juices.     After  five  or  ten 


58  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

minutes  the  water  should  be  reduced  to  160°  F. 
Above  170°  the  meat  becomes  hard  and  indigestible. 
Albumen  becomes  stringy  at  134°  and  coagulates  at 
160°,  but  of  course  the  interior  of  a  large  piece  of 
meat  is  cooler  than  the  surface  or  than  the  water. 

250.  Meat  is  more  effectually  cooked  at  this  lower 
temperature  than  by  boiling,  but  soldier  cooks  gen- 
erally use   excessive  heat  and   company  inspecting 
officers  should  check  them  with  the  aid  of  the  kitchen 
thermometer. 

251.  Simmering  and  boiling  are  the  same.     The 
water  should  not  simmer,  but  remain  at  160°-170°  F. 
fifteen  minutes  for  each  pound  of  meat.     Hence  so- 
called  boiled  meat  is  not  boiled  —  or  should  not  be. 

252.  That  actual  boiling  is  not  necessary  is  illus- 
trated by  the  fact  that  meats  "boiled"  at  Fort  Logan 
and  at  Fort  Monroe  are  practically  cooked  alike, 
although  at  the  greater  attitude  the  boiling  temper- 
ature is  lower. 


Water  boils  at  |  {b/|H  less  for  j  ^  1  feet  of  ele- 
vation, owing  to  diminished  pressure. 

Roasting,  Baking,  Frying,  and  Stewing. 

253.  The  so-called  roasting  is  baking;    but  meat 
may  be  roasted  by  cutting  it  into  pieces,  1-2  in.  sq., 
and  holding  it  for  a  few  minutes  before  a  hot  fire,  as 
in  the  field.    In  baking,  first  apply  an  intense  heat  to 
coagulate  the  outer  albumen  and  then  reduce  the 
temperature. 

254.  To  fry  actually  is  to  boil  in  fat,  which  would 
be  excellent,  but  is  never  done  because  fat  cannot 
boil  under  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure,  although 


FOOD.  59 


fatty  acid  of  butter,  butyric,  may  do  so.  The  ap- 
pearance of  boiling,  the  sputtering,  is  due  to  water 
in  the  lard.  To  fry  properly  the  fat  should  appear 
to  boil.  The  temperature  known  as  " boiling  hot" 
is  shown  by  little  jets  of  smoke,  not  steam,  from  the 
surface,  and  food  cooked  in  this  way  should  be  drained 
for  a  few  minutes  in  a  sieve. 

255.  Slowly  heated,  fat  evolves  fatty  acids,  gen- 
erally injurious,  penetrating  the  particles  of  frying 
food  and  enveloping  them  in  grease.     The  gastric 
fluids  cannot  dissolve  this  and  it  is  an  irritant  in  the 
stomach. 

256.  To  stew  meat,  small  pieces  should  be  kept 
for  about  two  hours  at  a  moderate  heat  (134°+ F.) 
in  a  little  water.     The  object  is  to  partly  extract  the 
juices,  keeping  the  albumen  semi-fluid  and  retaining 
all  the  surrounding  liquid. 

257.  That  very  high  temperatures  are  unnecessary 
in  cooking  meat,  the  Norwegian  stove  (as  modified, 
Warren's  Cooker)  shows. 

In  its  simplest  form  this  is  a  wooden  box  thickly 
lined  with  felt.  In  the  middle  is  a  stew-pan  with  a 
felt  lid.  The  contents  are  heated  as  desired,  the 
pan  is  placed  in  the  box,  which  is  covered,  and  left  to 
itself.  In  a  few  hours  the  work  is  done  without  the 
need  of  more  fire.  The  chemist's  water-bath,  of 
which  a  glue-pot  is  the  type,  is  an  excellent  cooking 
apparatus  and  in  the  form  of  a  " double  kettle" 
might  well  be  used  in  all  garrison  kitchens. 

Soup-making. 

258.  To  make  soup  put  uncooked  meat  into  cold 
water  (1  Ib.  lean  meat  to  1  qt.  water),  heat  gradually 


60  NOTES   ON   MILITARY  HYGIENE. 

and  cook  slowly.  Rapid  boiling  drives  off  the  aroma 
and  probably  part  of  the  nutritious  matter.  Cracked 
bones,  whose  marrow  dissolves,  add  to  its  strength. 
Cooked  meat  may  be  added  to  soup  three-quarters 
of  an  hour  after  putting  on  the  fire;  vegetables,  ex- 
cept potatoes,  one  hour  and  a-half  before  it  is  done; 
potatoes,  thirty  minutes.  The  more  fragments  of 
cooked  or  uncooked  meat  and  broken  bones,  the 
better.  A  scrupulously  clean  pot,  slow  cooking,  and 
constant  skimming  are  the  essentials  of  soup-making. 

259.  Soup  stock  is  made  by  putting  lean  meat  in 
cold  water,  three  pounds  to  a  gallon,  and  cooking 
slowly  for  several  hours.     The  fat  is  skimmed  off  and 
a  jelly  remains  after  cooling.     This  is  re-dissolved 
by  heat   and  re-boiling,  with  water   and  seasoning 
added  as  needed.     Although  rarely  done,  such  stock 
can  be  prepared  in  camp  and  carried  on  the  march, 
so  as  to  be  immediately  available  when  camp  is  made 
again.     The  stock-pot  should  always  be  kept  up  in 
garrison. 

Salt  Beef  and  Salt  Pork. 

260.  Salt  beef,  whose  ration  weight  is  22  ounces, 
is  now  issued  only  in  Alaska.     Its  nutritive  value 
may  be  reckoned  at  two-thirds  that  of  fresh  beef, 
decreasing  with  age. 

261.  Meat  is  salted  to  preserve  it,  but  this  is  at 
the  expense  of  some  nutritive  matters  that  pass  into 
the  brine;  so  that  from  brine  in  which  beef  has  been 
salted  about  half  a  pound  of  flesh  extract  to  the  gal- 
lon may  be  taken  by  dialysis.     But  brine  several 
times  used  becomes  poisonous,  by  the  decomposition 
of  the  contained  animal  substances. 


FOOD.  61 

262.  Both  salt  pork  and  salt  beef  are  carried  with 
difficulty  in  the  field,  and  are  not  very  acceptable. 
When  cooked  hard  and  dry  they  are  tough  and  in- 
sipid.    Much    nutritive    principle    passes    into    the 
brine,   "caving  only   a    fictitious   nitrogenous  value 
to  the  solids.     Nevertheless  salt  pork  contains  much 
more  N  and  C  than  fresh  pork,  and  is  issued  at  12 
ounces  to  the  ration.     On  the  march  it  should  be 
thoroughly  boiled  after  making  camp,  and  be   set 
aside  for  use  the  next  day. 

Fresh  Pork. 

263.  Fresh  pork,  never  issued,  is  sometimes  ob- 
tained through  the  company  fund  or  otherwise.     This 
and  veal  are  liable  to  cause  diarrhoea,  especially  in 
those  not  accustomed  to  them.    Both,  and  especially 
pork,  which  raw  is  liable  to  carry  a  dangerous  para- 
site, should  be  well  cooked. 

Bacon. 

264.  Bacon,  containing  much  more  N  and  C  than 
fresh  pork,  is  issued  at  12  ounces  to  the  ration.    Bacon 
is  the  exception  to  the  rule  that  cured  meats  are  less 
digestible  than  fresh.     Its   fat  is  more  acceptable 
than  that  of  pork,  it  is  easily  transported,  and  is 

rell  suited  to  the  wants  of  severe  exercise. 

265.  But  bacon  is  not  acceptable  to  those  not  in 
rude  physical  health,  nor  to  most  men  in  hot  climates, 
except   as  an   occasional   diet;     and   sometimes   it 
wastes  as  much  as  20-25  per  cent,  under  natural 
heat.      Bacon   slop-fed    and    summer-cured    wastes 
much  more  rapidly  than  that  corn-fed  and  winter- 
cured. 


. 


02  NOTES   ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

266.  Notwithstanding  its  waste  under  heat,  prop- 
erly selected  bacon  should  generally  be  substituted 
for  salt  pork  at  southern  posts.    It  should  be  stored  in 
bins  with  bulk  salt  in  alternate  layers.     Hncon  with 
very  deep  layers  of  fat  and  thin  layers  of  lean  should 
only  be  issued  at  northern  stations,  for  it  can  n< -it  her 
be  cooked  properly  in  the  field  nor  eaten  with    .HI 
faction  at  the  south.     The  weight  of  the  side    deter- 
mines  the  proportion  of  fat.     Sides  weighing  from 
25  to  50  pounds  are  preferable. 

267.  When  the  fat  of  bacon  is  yellow  and  the  taste 
is  strong,  the  meat  is  rusty  or  tainted;   when  the 
lean  has  brown  or  black  spots,  it  is  not  good.     But 
bacon  from  stag  hogs  or  those  fed  on  mast  may  be 
yellowish  and  still  be  good. 

Corned  Beef. 

268.  Cooked  corned  beef  at  12  ounces  is  a  substi- 
tutivc  part  of  the  ration  where  cooking  is  impracti- 
cable.    It  has  double  the  nutritive  quality  of  the 

same  quantity  of  uncooked  beef,  and  will  probably 
play  an  important  part  in  future  wars.  It  is  issued 
canned.  It  contains  GO  per  cent,  solids,  of  which  40 
are  albuminoids,  15  fat,  and  5  salts.  Nitrogen  is  0 
per  cent,  of  the  whole. 

269.  Corning  is  treating  raw  beef  to  a  pickle,  for 
which  this  is  a  good  formula: 

To  50  Ibs.  beef  take  2  gals,  water,  4  Ibs.  salt,  1£ 
11  >s.  brown  sugar,  1£  oz.  saltpetre,  £  oz.  saleratus. 
l>oil,  skim,  and  cool  gradually.  When  cold  put  the 
beef  in  the  brine  under  a  weight.  It  may  be  used 
in  eight  or  ten  days.  This  is  to  be  boiled.  After 


FOOD.  63 


thr-  }>r\]K>  has  been  used  four  times  it  must  \><- 
;.nd    kimrned.    This  may  be  repeated  three  ti/ 

/JiwaMd  Mud. 

270.  "Bad,"   that  is  ing,  meat  should 

not  be  eaten,  but  meat  from  animate  suffering  under 
severe  and  mortal  diseases  may  be  cot  ith 

out  harm.  While  such  food  ordinarily  should  }><>. 
demned,  in  severe  straits  it  is  better  to  issue  it 
n  to  allow  troops  to  starve. 

271  Animals  ill  and  df,vl  of  the  cattle-plague 
(rinderpest)  and  of  epidemic  pleuro-pneumonia  have 
been  eaten  n  -\,-  without  harm,  and  as  late  as 

1  s?  1  -  nders  were  consumed  in  large 

numbers  at  the  siege  of  Paris.  However,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  such  meat  be  thoroughly  cooked,  and  it  is 
much  safer  that  all  the  blood  be  carefully  drained 
and  not  used.  But  tuberculous  (consumptive)  meat 
may  infect  the  consumer,  and  milk  from  such  cows  is 
dangerous.  Ordinarily,  animate  affected  with  malig- 
nant pustule  should  be  burned,  not  buried. 

272.  Notwithstanding  diseased   animate   are  not 
necessarily  to  be  condemned  as  food  for  human 
beings  in  great  straits,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
persons  have  occasionally  been  poisoned  by  the 
stronger  medicines  with  which  such  animate  have 
been  treated. 

273.  When  imperfectly  cooked,  beef  and  pork,  if 
themselves  diseased,  may  communicate  con.-:urrjp- 
tion  and  tapeworm,  and  pork  may  infect  with  the 
trichii 

274.  Tapeworm    in    man  is  generated    from    the 
measle  of  the  hog  arid  the  ox  when  swallowed  it 


64  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

The  measle  itself  (cysticercus-ci)  is  a  small  round 
body  observable  with  the  naked  eye,  and  when  it  is 
numerous  the  flesh  crackles  on  being  cut.  To  speak 
of  old  and  rusty  pork  as  " measly"  is  not  correct. 

275.  Trichina  spiralis  is  a  minute  parasitic  worm 
frequenting  swine,  which  when  swallowed  by  man 
multiplies  and  causes  a  very  painful  and  dangerous 
disease.     The  trichinse  are  killed  when  albumen  is 
coagulated  (160°+ F.).     But  if  the  interior  of  boiled 
or  roasted  pork  shows  the  color  of  uncooked  meat, 
this  has  not  been  attained.     Trichinse  are  also  killed 
by  hot,  not  common,  smoking.     Therefore  all  doubt- 
ful meat  should   be   thoroughly   cooked   to   insure 
against  these  three  common  evils,  tubercle,  tape- 
worm, trichina. 

276.  Sausages    and    pies    from    meat    apparently 
wholesome  may  become  poisonous  by  the  formation 
of  a  yet  unknown  substance.     Age  is  presumed  to 
be  one  of  the  factors      In  warm  weather  hash  pre- 
pared the  night  before  it  is  to  be  eaten  and  stale 
mixed  dishes  are  liable  to  induce  colic  and  diarrhoea. 
These  conditions  result  from  bacterial  fermentation. 

277.  Meat  may  be  preserved  for  some  time  by 
heating  very  strongly  the  outside,  thus  coagulating 
the  albumen  in  the  outer  layers  and  hermetically 
sealing  the  interior.     The  application  of  charcoal  or 
sugar  to  the  surface  is  also  preservative,  and  gun- 
powder rubbed  into  the  surface  would  probably  have 
a  similar  effect. 

Horse-flesh. 

278.  Horse-flesh  contains  more  N  and  less  C  and 
H  than  beef.     It  is  palatable  and  stimulating,  and 


FOOD.  65 

horses  killed  in  action  or  not  required  in  a  siege 
should  be  utilized  in  emergency. 


Bread. 

279.  Bread,  the  other  important  part  of  the  ration 
with  meat, — for  practically  bread  and  meat  make  up 
its  value, — is  the  only  portion  of  it  in  which  there  is 
no  waste.     It  is  one  of  the  few  foods  that  never  pall 
upon  the  appetite;  nevertheless  it  is  not  a  complete 
diet,  being  deficient  in  fat  and  moderately  in  N; 
hence  butter  or  other  greasy  food  is  eaten  with  it  by 
instinct. 

280.  In  making  bread  there  is  a  gain  of  one-third 
in  weight  over  the  flour  used.     It  is  possible  under 
the  concurrent  authority  of  the  council  of  adminis- 
tration and  the  commanding  officer  to  increase  the 
bread  ration  to  the  full  extent  of  the  flour  ration,  or 
to  any  part  thereof.     But  if  the  bread  is  made  and 
issued  by  the  Subsistence  Department  rather  than 
by  the  post  or  the  company,  the  savings  will  accrue 
to  it,  and  no  increase  over  the  authorized  weight  of 
the  bread  can  be  expected.     It  should  be  possible  to 
change  the  regulation,  so  that  even  from  subsistence 
bakeries  an  increased  bread  ration  may  be  issued 
when  required. 

281.  The  weight  of  the  bread  ration  is  to  be  taken 
cold,  because  bread  loses  weight  on  standing  by  the 
evaporation  of  the  contained  water. 

282.  Flour  is  the  crushed  kernel  of  wheat  with  the 
two  outer  husks  removed.     Dough  is  flour  mixed 
with   salt   and   water.     Bread   is   dough   distended 
through  its  particles  with  CO2  and  cooked.     Flour 


66  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

contains  9-14  per  cent.  N,  chiefly  in  the  gluten,  and 
60  to  70  parts  carbonaceous  matter  (starch,  dex- 
trin, sugar). 

283.  The  husks  or  bran  contain  about  15  per  cent. 
N,   3.5  fat,  and  5.7  salts.     Although  theoretically 
nutritious,  it  is  not  so  practically  from  its  indigesti- 
bility.     Whole  flour,  so  far  as  it  truly  contains  the 
bran,  is  of  doubtful  utility  because  of  the  mechanical 
irritation.     But  whole  flour  as   advertised,  usually 
has  really  little  bran  remaining  in  it. 

284.  "Straight"  flour  is  the  whole  product  of  the 
wheat  less  the  refuse,  with  a  small  percentage  of  low 
grades.     A  bushel  of  wheat  (60  pounds)  should  yield 
about  44  pounds  of  this  flour. 

285.  "High    patent"    flour,   of    which    "family" 
flour  is  a  type,  is  a  very  fine  well-milled  flour  from 
selected  wheat  and  is  thus  of  higher  price,  but  it  is 
not    the    most    nutritious.     Moderately    dressed    or 
"straight"  flour  is  the  best  for  issue. 

286.  Flour  is  tested  by  touch,  color,  taste,  odor, 
and     strength    or     elasticity.      Formerly    absolute 
smoothness  and  whiteness  were  signs  of  the  best 
quality;  but  the  roller  process,  by  which  most  flour 
is  now  made,  does  not  yield  an  impalpable  powder 
but  one  slightly  rough,  and  the  dark  color  of  the 
hard  winter  wheat  ("Russian"  and  "Turkey")  gives 
that  flour  a  marked  yellow  tinge. 

287.  Nevertheless  decided  grittiness  or  excessive 
yellowness     indicates,     as     formerly,     commencing 
change.     Damp    flour    should    always    be    rejected. 
Whatever  the  standard,  flour  must  be  uniform  in 
color.     Specks  show  imperfect  milling  or  very  low 
grade.     Dry  roller-process  flour   is  not  as  adhesive 


FOOD.  67 

as  buhr-stone  flour,  but  if  free  from  dampness  there 
may  be  a  little  cohesion  on  compression. 

288.  A  disagreeable  taste,  or  musty  or  sour  odors, 
indicate  bad  flour;    and  boiling  water  poured  on  a 
handful  of  flour  should  evolve  no  odor  other  than 
that  of  freshly  ground  wheat.     Good  flour  is  slightly 
acid  to  test-paper,  but  not  to  the  taste.     Recogni- 
zable acidity  indicates  change.     Acid  flour  makes 
sour  bread. 

289.  The  relative  strength  and  elasticity  of  the 
gluten  make  a  standard  for  comparison  between  dif- 
ferent qualities  of  flour,  which  is  used  by  inspectors 
under  the  name  of  the  dough  test.     The  gluten  itself 
is  an  important  nutritive  factor  of  the  flour.     Failure 
of  the  dough  test  shows  weak  flour  from  poor  wheat, 
sprouted,  damaged,  or  old,  or  imperfect  milling  and 
defective  gluten.     Flour  from  sprouted  wheat  makes 
heavy,  dark  bread 

290.  Dough  Test.— Mix  carefully  flour  2  oz.,  water 
1  oz.;  when  the  flour  is  all  incorporated,  shape  the 
mass  into  a  cylinder  If  in.  in  diameter  by  2f  in.  high, 
standing  on  its  base ;  after  30  minutes  it  is  evidence 
of  strength  if  it  has  stood  up  well  with  a  hardened 
dry  surface;    if  it  falls,  flattens,  or  runs  over  the 
plate,  it  is  a  sign  of  weakness,  of  inferior  milling,  or 
of  poor  stock.     Knead  it  again  carefully,  flatten  it 
and  pull  it  out  gently,  not  suddenly,  for  about  5  in. ; 
should  it  rebound  quickly,  it  is  evidence  of  strength 
and  superior  gluten.     Again  knead  it  gently,  flatten 
it  out  uniformly  to  the  size  of  a  plate,  gently  and 
gradually  pull  it  at  the  edges  until  it  is  very  thin, 
like  distended  rubber;   if  this  can  be  done  without 
tearing,  it  shows  strength  and  superior  gluten. 


68  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

291.  All  flour  deteriorates  with  age,  but  that  made 
from  sound  clean  winter  wheat  maintains  its  char- 
acter longest.     When  it  begins  to  be  impaired  mites 
appear,  and  later  small  beetles  or  " weevil"  are  pres- 
ent.    To  purify  a  storehouse  in  which  these  have 
gained  entrance,  and  where  they  will  remain  indefi- 
nitely, weak  fumes  of  S02  must  be  used,  although 
the  gas  will  injure  the  exposed  flour.     (Munson.) 

292.  Flour  absorbs  odors  readily,  hence  it  should 
never  be  stored  near  vegetables,  fruits,  spices,  to- 
bacco, turpentine,  coal-oil,  etc.,  and  the  sacks  should 
be  piled  about  nine  high,  with  the  tiers  six  inches 
apart,  in  a  dry  room. 

293.  In  making  bread  the  temperature  to  which 
the   dough  is   raised   coagulates   the   albumen   and 
transforms  part  of  the  starch  into  dextrin;  and  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  sugar  and  C02  is  formed.     It  is  the 
presence  of  this  gas  which  separates  the  particles  of 
flour  and  makes  the  bread  light. 

294.  There  are  three  ways  of  making  bread,  viz.: 
To  generate  CO2  by  adding  yeast  or  some  other  fer- 
ment   to  the  dough;    to  use  a  baking-powder,  as 
sodium  or  ammonium  carbonate  mixed  in  a  dry 
state    with    hydrochloric,    tartaric,    phosphoric,    or 
citric  acid,  and  incorporate  it  in  the  dough ;  to  aerate 
the  dough  by  forcing  CO2  through  it.     Of  these  the 
third  is  probably  the  best  theoretically,  because  the 
conversion  of  starch  into  dextrin,  sugar,  and  lactic 
acid  is  limited,  but  it  requires  special  apparatus,  and 
is  rarely  applicable  to  military  service.     The  first 
may  be  called  nature's  way,  but  to  use  it  requires 
special  skill. 

295.  A   good   baking-powder  for  extemporaneous 


FOOD.  69 

preparation  is:  Tartaric  acid,  2  oz.,  bicarbonate  of 
soda  and  arrowroot,  each  3  oz. ;  all  well  mixed  and 
kept  perfectly  dry  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle.  (Yeo.) 
But  ordinarily  a  commercial  powder  is  issued  when 
properly  required. 

296.  The  ordinary  garrison  method  is  by  the  use 
of  yeast.  For  20  Ibs.  flour  take  8-12  Ibs.  tepid 
water,  4  oz.  yeast,  with  a  little  potato  and  1-^-2  oz. 
salt.  The  baker's  skill  checks  the  fermentation  at 

I  the  proper  point. 
297.  Frequently  a  little  alum  is  empirically  added 
in  making  bread,  its  action  being  uncertain.  Some 
suppose  it  limits  excessive  changes,  others  that  it 
aids  in  the  formation  of  CO2.  In  the  small  quanti- 
ties in  which  it  is  legitimately  used  it  is  harmless  ; 
but  in  excess,  as  in  some  baking-powders,  it  delays 
digestion.  Alum  is  also  added  sometimes  to  fer- 
menting flour  so  as  to  check  the  process  and  to  enable 
the  flour  to  be  used,  but  the  propriety  of  this  is  very 
doubtful.  Within  proper  limits  alum  is  believed  to 
whiten  the  bread. 

298.  The  ordinary  ferment  is  yeast.     Where  this 
is  not  available  leaven  is  substituted.     Leaven  is 
dough   kept   moderately   warm   for   some   time,    of 
which  a  lump  undergoing  fermentation  is  kneaded 
into  fresh  flour  and  water  so  as  to  permeate  the 
whole. 

299.  Bread  is  heavy  from  bad  yeast  fermenting 
too  rapidly,  or  when  it  has  not  fermented  enough, 
or  when  too  much  or  too  little  heat  is  used.     It  is 
bitter   from   bitter   yeast.     It  moulds  rapidly  from 
an  excess  of  water. 

300.  Occasionally  flour  is  found  that  is  poor  in 


70  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

quality.  Flour  from  sandy  soil  or  where  lime  is 
deficient  may  rise  well  enough,  but  becomes  heavy 
and  sour  as  it  cools.  The  same  condition  may  fol- 
low the  use  of  yeast  from  too  old  stock.  Good 
bread  may  be  made  with  such  flour  by  using  lime- 
water.  And  sometimes  acid  flour  must  be  used, 
which  also  requires  good  lime-water.  This  use  of 
lime-water  corrected  the  deficiency  in  large  quanti- 
ties of  such  flour  in  the  early  days  of  the  Civil  War. 

301.  To  prepare  this  lime-water,  keep  a  barrel  of 
water  in  the  bottom  of  which  is  2  inches  of  quick-lime. 
Stir  this  up  well  and  allow  it  to  settle  in  time  for 
each  batch,  and  keep  it  well  supplied  with  quick- 
lime so  that  it  may  be  active. 

302.  A  bakery  at  the  general  or  the  secondary  base 
can  supply   a   great    camp    or   an    army  operating 
on  a   line  of   railroad.      In    minor   camps    of    any 
permanence  iron  portable  ovens  will  establish  tem- 
porary   bakeries.     For    marching    columns    bakery 
wagons  in  which  men  can  knead  the  dough,  and 
travelling  ovens  to  go  where  guns   can  pass,   are 
practicable.     For  brigades  or  less,  not  in  permanent 
camps,  the  baking,  as  the  cooking,  must  as  a  rule  be 
done  by  company. 

303.  The  more   common   camp  methods   are   by 
barrel  ovens,  Dutch  ovens,  mess-pans,  frying-pans, 
holes  in  the  ground. 

304.  The  barrel  oven:   A  barrel  with  its  head  out 
is  laid  on  its  side  in  a  hollow,  it  is  covered  throughout 
with  wet  clay  6-8  in.  and  this  with  dry  earth  for  6  in., 
leaving  a  3-in.  opening  at  the  top  of  the  further  end 
for  a  flue.     The  staves  are  burned  out,  and  for  use 
when  heated  the  front  and  flue  are  closed. 


FOOD.  71 

305.  A  Dutch  oven  is  a  heavy  flat  iron  pot  with 
short  legs  and  a  top  fitting  with  a  flange.     It  is 
heated  by  coals  beneath  and  above.     It  is  econom- 
ical to  use  several  of  them  together  in  a  trench. 
This  is  suitable  for  company  cooking  when  fuel  and 
transportation  are  abundant. 

306.  The  Buzzacott  field-oven  and  range  are  well 
adapted    for    baking    and    company    cooking.     The 
capacity  of  the  oven  is  greater  and  its  weight  and 
cost  are  less  than  the  Dutch  oven,  and  it  can  be  car- 
ried wherever  there  is  moderate  transportation. 

307.  To  bake  bread  in  mess-pans:  Cut  off  1^  in.  of 
the  iron  rim  of  one  pan,  leaving  a  rough  edge;    fill 
the  cut  pan  two-thirds  with  dough  and  cover  with  a 
perfect  pan  inverted;  place  these  in  a  hole  18-20  in. 
deep  in  which   a   fire  has  burned    5-6    hours  and 
from  which  all  the  cinders  but  a  bed  2-3  in.  deep 
have  been  removed.     Cover  the  pans  with  hot  cin- 
ders and  with  earth  and  leave  them  5-6  hours.     The 
rough  edges  of  the  cut  pan  permit  the  escape  of 
gases  and  the  bread  will  not  rise  to  the  top. 

308.  To  use  a  frying-pan :  Grease  it  and  set  it  over 
embers  till  the  grease  melts ;  put  in  dough  rolled  \  in. 
thick  and  set  on  the  fire;  shake  the  pan  to  prevent 
sticking;    when  the  lower  crust  forms,  remove  the 
bread  and  set  it  up  on  edge  close  to  the  fire  and  turn 
it  occasionally.     One  man  with  six  pans  will  bake 
25  Ibs.  of  bread  in  less  than  an  hour. 

309.  To  bake  bread  in  a  hole :  The  simplest  method 
is  to  fill  a  small  hole  in  the  ground  with  a  wood  fire; 
when  the  fuel  is  consumed,  place  on  a  stone  a  mixture 
of  flour,  salt,  and  water,  cover  with  a  tin  plate  and 


72  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

surround  with  hot  ashes.     Regulate  the  heat,  for 
above  212°  will  toughen. 

310.  To    make    an  oven  where  there  is  a  bank: 
Cut  the  face  perpendicularly;  make  a  tunnel  not  to 
exceed  5  feet  in  length,  half  as  wide,  and  one-fourth 
as  high;   keep  the  entrance  low  and  no  wider  than 
will  admit  a  bake-pan ;  arch  the  interior ;  pierce  it  at 
the  rear  for  a  chimney,  using  if  convenient  a  couple 
of  lengths  of  stove-pipe.     The  chimney  is  the  most 
difficult  part  of  the  undertaking.     For  baking,  close 
both  door  and  flue  when  heated,  as  with  the  barrel 
oven.     Where  a  camp  is  longer  than  one  day,  such 
an  oven  may  be  made  in  flat  ground  by  digging  a 
pit  and  using  one  side  as  an  artificial  bank.     (Mun- 
son.) 

311.  Bread  sour  from  an  excess  of  acid  becomes 
edible  when  the  acid  is  volatilized  by  the  bread  being 
toasted  in  thin  slices.     Stale  bread  cut  into  thick 
slices  is  freshened  by  being  toasted,  and  stale  loaves 
soaked  in  water  and  heated  250°-300°  in  an  oven 
become    fresh,  but  must  be  eaten  within  twenty- 
four  hours. 

312.  For  transportation  loaves  should  be  laid  on 
their  sides  or  ends,  not  on  their  bottoms.     An  army 
wagon  will  carry  1400  18-oz.  rations  of  bread,  and 
with  side-boards  1800. 

Hard  Bread. 

313.  Hard  bread  is  unfermented  dough  thoroughly 
baked,  not  burned.     Bulk  for  bulk  it  is  more  nutri- 
tious than  soft  bread  on  account  of  the  water  being 
driven  off,  but  men  do  not  thrive  on  it  as  a  continu- 


a< 

. 


POOD.  73 

diet.     It  lacks  fat,  which  the  men  instinctively 
add  when  practicable. 

314.  Hard  bread  is  now  conveniently  prepared  in 
lie  form  of  very  small  rectangular  crackers  put  up 
in  one-pound  stiff  cartons,  and  should  always  be 
issued  thus  for  the  field.  There  is  no  waste  then,  as 
occurs  with  the  large  squares,  which  crumble  when 
taken  out  of  the  original  box. 


Corn  Meal  and  Oatmeal. 


315.  Corn  meal  may  be  substituted  for  flour,  20 
for  18  oz.,  but  the  allowance  cannot  be  increased,  as 
that  of  flour  may  be.     It  contains  as  much  N  and 
four  times  as  much  fat,  6-7  per  cent.,  and  is  very 
nutritious.     It  should  be  freshly  ground  from  se- 
lected corn,  kiln-dried  and  well  bolted.     It  does  not 
keep  well  and,  especially  if  not  thoroughly  cooked, 
cannot  be  forced  on  persons  unaccustomed  to  its 
use. 

316.  Oatmeal  carefully  cooked  is  very  nutritious, 
developing  ounce  for  ounce -130  foot-tons  of  poten- 
tial energy  against  87.5  for  bread.     It  keeps  well,  is 
easily  cooked  and,  while  it  lacks  adhesiveness  for 
making  large  loaves,  small  flat  cakes  can  be  pre- 
served.    This  is  good  military  food.     Oatmeal  as  a 
hot  or  cold  gruel  is  extensively  and  profitably  used 
by  laborers  on  hard  work,  and  is  strongly  recom- 
mended as  an  extra  issue  for  men  on  guard  at  night 
or  on  heavy  fatigue. 

Cheese. 

317.  Cheese  was  formerly  but  is  no  longer  issued 
to  travelling  troops,  25  Ibs.  to  100  rations.     It  is 


74  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

recommended  as  an  occasional  addition  to  the  mess- 
table  to  be  obtained  by  purchase.  •  Cheese  is  nutri- 
tious and  economical,  being  rich  in  N  and  in  fat.  A 
half  pound  contains  as  much  N  as  one  pound  of 
meat,  and  a  third  of  a  pound  contains  as  much  fat. 
The  opinion  that  it  is  very  indigestible  is  not  well 
founded,  if  it  is  carefully  masticated. 

318.  The  richer  cheeses  decompose  easily,  and  all 
are  liable  to  do  so  in  hot  climates;   hence  it  is  not 
well  kept  in  store.     An  obscure  fermentative  change 
sometimes  develops  an  active  gastro-intestinal  poi- 
son (tyrotoxicon)  in  cheese  that  appears  sound.     It 
may  be  detected  by  pressing  against  it  a  strip  of  blue 
litmus  paper,  which  will  suddenly  become  red.     Boil- 
ing water  dissipates  this  poison,  so  that  the  cheese 
may  be  safely  eaten  after  cooking. 

Dried  Vegetables. 

319.  Beans  or  pease  (dried)  at  15  Ibs.  to  the  100 
rations   are   part   of  the   regular  issue.     Pease   are 
chiefly  used  for  soup,  which  is  the  only  state  in  which 
men  like  them  as  a  rule.     It  is  their  richness  in  N 
that  makes  both  valuable  substitutes  for  meat. 

320.  Beans  contain  several  times  as  much  N  as 
bread,  and  supplement  it  admirably.     But  they  are 
indigestible  unless  well  cooked,  and  should  be  soaked 
in  soft  water  about  twelve  hours  and  be  boiled  until 
they  are  tender,  which  will  require  two  or  three  hours 
more.     No  amount  of  boiling  will  soften  old  beans. 
These  should  be  soaked  twenty-four  hours  and  then 
be  crushed  and  stewed. 

321.  Hard  water  is  unsuitable  for  use  with  either 
beans  or  pease,  as  the  lime  salts  make  the  legumen 


POOD.  75 

luble.     When  lime-water  must  be  used  for  cook- 
g  beans,  a  certain  amount  of  the  hardness  can  be 
moved  by  boiling,  by  which  part  of  the  lime  is 
recipitated,  and  the  supernatant  water,  if  carefully 
poured  off,  can  be  used. 

Fresh  and  Canned  Vegetables. 

322.  Fresh    vegetables    are    always    desirable    for 
variety,  for  their  own  sake  as  food,  to  give  zest  to 

,he  appetite,  and  probably  as  an  aid  to  digestion  and 
the  assimilation  of  other  food.  They  have  special 
value  as  antiscorbutics.  In  cooking  vegetables 
there  is  a  shrinkage  of  about  10  per  cent.,  exclusive 
of  waste. 

323.  Mushrooms  are  an  agreeable  addition  to  the 
company  table,  and  when  grown  naturally  and  eaten 
fresh  are  nutritious.     The  spawn  is  easily  obtained 
and    they    are    readily    cultivated.     A    mushroom 
should  peel  easily,  be  a  clear  pink,  and  have  a  cur- 
tain attached  to  the  stalk. 

324.  The  tomato  is  a  better  antiscorbutic  than  the 
potato.     Its  acid  is  malic,  which  it  holds  free  at  a 
little  over  T37  of  one  per  cent,  and  about  as  much  in 
combination  with  bases.     The  tomato  is  excessively 
watery,  some  specimens  as  canned  containing  97.6 
per  cent,  fluid,  but  probably  this  could  be  reduced. 
With  part  of  the  water  driven  off  canned  tomatoes 
might  properly  be  supplied,  if  not  as    an  outright 
issue,  at  least  at  a  very  low  price,  to  companies  when 
really  fresh  vegetables  are  scarce. 

Canned  Foods. 

325.  Canned  foods  sometimes  ferment,  and  the 
presence  of  gas  which  requires  rejection  is  shown  by 


76  NOTES  ON  MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

the  end  bulging.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that 
two  sealing-holes  in  the  end  of  the  can  indicated  that 
the  gas  of  fermentation  had  been  allowed  to  escape 
through  a  new  vent,  which  afterward  was  sealed. 
But  two  holes  are  not  a  certain  sign  of  bad  goods, 
because  some  companies  habitually  make  use  of  two 
in  their  original  packing. 

326.  First-class  canned  goods  have  on  the  labe] 
both  the  name  of  the  factory  and  that  of  the  whole- 
sale house  through  which  they  are  sold.     Doubtful 
goods  have  a  fictitious  factory  name  and  no  dealer's 
name.     These  are  easily  avoided  in  peace,  but  under 
the  pressure  of  war  supplies  deteriorate  and  must  be 
critically  watched. 

327.  A  rosin  flux  as  formerly  used  is  better  to 
seal  the  cans  than  one  of  zinc  chloride,  which  is  now 
more  common.     Zinc  is  charged  with  injuring  the 
health,  although  this  has  not  been  proved.     At  the 
worst  the  rosin  merely  affects  the  taste  when  care- 
lessly employed. 

328.  Canned  food  kept  long  in  store  especially 
under  either  extreme  of  temperature  may  deterio- 
rate, and  should  be  inspected  from  time  to  time  to 
determine  its  condition.     The  true  weight  and  the 
nominal  weight  of  canned  goods  rarely  agree,  and 
the  contents  of  certain  trade  packages  are  officially 
estimated  thus:     1-lb.   can  baked  beans,    10i  oz.; 
3-lb.  can,  34J  oz.;  2^-lb.  can  tomatoes,  2  Ibs.;  3-lb. 
can,  2J  Ibs.;  gallon  can,  6|  Ibs. 

Other  Foods, 

329.  Occasionally  men  are  fed  through  the  com- 
pany fund  with  a  cheaper  grade  of  food,  but  as  a 


FOOD.  77 


le  (although  not  universally)  such  is  apt  to 
be  defective.  This  is  especially  true  of  molasses, 
as  thus  bought.  Speaking  generally,  it  is  not 
economy  to  buy  food  that  costs  much  less  than 
that  of  the  same  name  supplied  by  the  Subsist- 
ence Department. 

330.  Pemmican    (par.  238)  is  valuable  for  arctic 
service.     Pinole,  or  dried  corn  mixed  with  sugar  or 
mesquit-flour,  in  extensive  use  in  Mexico  and  on 
that  frontier,  might  well  be  issued  to  scouts  or  native 
irregulars.     A   Mexican   Indian   runner   will   travel 
long  distances  when  eating  only  parched  corn  and 
sugar,  and  sometimes  a  little  dried  beef. 

331.  The    not    thoroughly-explained   craving   for 
sugar  by  soldiers  doing  hard  work  in  the  field,  dem- 
onstrated on  a  large  scale  by  the  British  troops  in 
South  Africa  and  by  our  own  men  in  the  Philip- 
pines, should  be  respected.     It  is  recognized  in  civil 
life  by  the  extensive  use  of  molasses  on  farms  and 
in  lumber-camps,  and  of  molasses  and  water  as  a 
sustaining  beverage  in  the  haying-field.     Cane-sugar 
is  much  more  valuable  than  glucose,  with  which  it  is 
frequently  adulterated. 

332.  Rice,  the  principal  food  of  great  numbers  of 
Orientals,    as   seen    in    our   markets,    has    had   its 
reddish  coating,  which  lies  under  the  husk,  removed 
by   polishing.     It   has   thus    lost   its   proteids    and 
nearly  pure  starch  remains.     When  properly  cooked, 
so  that  the  grains  lie  detached,  rice  is  very  palatable ; 
and  as  its  starch  is  extremely  digestible,  it  should  be 
a  valuable  supplementary  food.     But  boiled  into  a 
sticky   paste,   as   is   usually   the   case  in   company 
kitchens,  it  is  repulsive. 


78  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

333.  The  demand  by  theorists  for  special  rations 
for  troops,  in  both  the  high  and  the  low  latitudes, 
usually  depends  upon  failure  to  distinguish  between 
the  food  allowed  and  that  consumed.     The  ration  is 
so  elastic  that,  with  the  additions  made  for  Alaska, 
it  is  adaptable  for  all  service.     It  would  be  unwise 
to  impose  suddenly  upon  white  troops  temporarily 
stationed  in  the  tropics  a  diet  identical  with  that 
of  natives  of  those  regions,  who  have  become  habitu-  . 
ated  to  such  food    by  the    experience  of    genera- 
tions.    However  their  excessive  use  of  starches,  to 
the    exclusion    of    flesh,    probably    depends    upon 
financial   as   well  as   upon   climatic  considerations. 

334.  The  bad  reputation  of  tropical  fruits  largely 
depends  upon  careless  selection.     They   should  be 
fresh,  sound,  and  scrupulously  clean.     It  is  in  stale- 
ness,  commencing  decomposition,  and  contamination 
that  danger  lies.     Salads  and  similar  raw  food  from 
the    surface    of    the   soil    are    especially    liable    to 
convey  bacterial  or  parasitic  disease.     Subject  to 
these  conditions,  tropical  fruit  should  be  refreshing 
and  wholesome. 

335.  There  should,  however,  be  a  general  modifi- 
cation of  the  consumed  ration  to  correspond  with 
this  rule:    In  tropical  countries  carbohydrates  form 
the  staple;   in  temperate,  a  mixed  dietary  is  used; 
in  arctic,  fuel  foods,  that  is  the  hydrocarbons   or 
fats. 

336.  Scurvy  may  be  superinduced  by  mental  de- 
pression and  is  due  to  the  absence  of  the  salts  of 
vegetable  acids  in  the  food,  probably  reducing  the 
alkalinity  of  the  blood.     It  is  checked  by  cheerful 
surroundings,  and  is  removed  by  the  use  of  fresh 


FOOD.  79 

vegetables,  vegetable  acids,  or  their  salts.  Con- 
vei^ely,  scurvy  not  only  disheartens  the  men,  who 
lose  both  dash  and  fortitude,  but  its  early  symp- 
toms simulate  other  distinct  diseases.  A  company 
officer  who  is  told  that  many  of  his  men  complain 
of  "chronic  rheumatism77  or  stiffness  of  the  muscles, 
and  particularly  if  there  is  a  case  or  two  of  night- 
blindness,  should  look  after  the  company  mess. 

337.  The  better  antiscorbutics  are  lemon  and  lime 
juice;  raw  potato;  tomato;  onions;  cabbage  (fresh 
cabbage  is  better  than  sauerkraut) ;  vinegar;  yellow 
mustard;    lamb's  quarter;    cactus  stripped  by  fire 
(the   tall   varieties    contain    valuable   juice).     Raw 
potato  sliced  and  covered  in  alternate  layers  with 
molasses  is  a  good  antiscorbutic  that  keeps  well. 

338.  The  best  antiscorbutic  is  the  agave.    -To  pre- 
pare it  cut  off  the  leaves  close  to  the  root,  cook  them 
well  in  hot  ashes,  express  the  juice,  and  drink,  raw  or 
sweetened,  1-4  wineglassfuls  three  times  a  day.     The 
white  interior  of  the  leaves  may  be  eaten. 

339.  It  is  probable  that  the  habitual  use  of  raw 
or  underdone  flesh  is  antiscorbutic!     Munson  sug- 
gests that  cooking  splits  up  the  organic  acid  upon 
which  this  quality  depends. 

Beverages. 

340.  Water,  the  natural  drink  of  an  active  and 
healthy  man,  will  be  discussed  in  a  subsequent  chap- 
ter     Coffee  is  a  gentle  nervous  stimulant,  and  as 
made    in    garrison    insures    the    advantage    of   the 
water  being  boiled.     It  is  useful  in  winter  by  the 
warmth  it  supplies,  and  in  summer  it  replaces  per- 
spiration.    Chiccory  and  coffee  "extracts'7  are  harm- 


80  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

less  adulterations  in  garrison,  but  are  worthless  in 
the  field.  In  the  field  only  coffee  itself,  which  prob- 
ably retards  tissue  change  and  certainly  stimulates 
the  nervous  system  without  reaction,  should  be  re- 
lied on.  The  disadvantage  of  its  use  in  campaign, 
when  it  must  be  issued  ground  and  roasted,  is  its 
liability  to  accidental  loss  and  to  damage. 

341.  Tea  has  practically  the  same  physiological 
effect  as  coffee.     The  advantage  of  tea  is  its  light- 
ness and  small  bulk.     Its  weight  is  but  one-sixth  that 
of  coffee.     A  water-proof  covering  is  necessary  for 
its  carriage,  and  the  most  convenient  method  is  in 
a  flat  glass  vial.     Tea  is  not  a  popular  drink  with 
American  men,  and  the  troops  generally  dislike  it 
because  of  its  bitterness  when  drawn  too  long,  and 
from  the  astringent  taste  due  to  the  action  of  iron 
on  it. 

342.  The  vessels  for  making  tea  should  be  scrupu- 
lously clean,  with  no  exposed  iron.     Tea  is  best  made 
by  pouring  boiling  water  on  the  leaves  and  letting  it 
"draw,"  not  boil,  in  a  covered  vessel.     Should  the 
water  be  hard,  ft  ought  first  to  be  boiled  with  a  little 
sodium    carbonate.     Besides    having    the    sanitary 
advantages  of  boiled  water,  tea  destroys  many  offen- 
sive qualities  of  water  that  contains  suspended  arid 
dissolved  organic  matters. 

The  Preparation  of  the  Ration. 

343.  His  ability  to  cook  the  rations  without  waste 
and  to   assimilate  it,   are  marked    features  in  the 
greater  efficiency  of  the  regular  over  the  volunteer. 

344.  The  practical  use  of  the  ration  is  one  of  the 
first  lessons  to  be  thoroughly  taught,  for  as  soon  as 


r  FOOD.  81 

the  stomach  is  not  properly  filled  the  man  becomes 
inefficient.  Line  as  well  as  medical  officers  are  re- 
quired to  superintend  the  enlisted  men's  cooking 
(Rev.  Stat.,  1174,  1234).  This  does  not  mean  that 
they  should  minutely  instruct,  but  that  they  should 
understand  the  general  principles  and  see  that  they 
are  followed.  This  is  peculiarly  important  with 
new  troops,  so  that  a  knowledge  of  cooking,  espe- 
cially of  field  cooking,  should  be  sedulously  taught 
National  Guardsmen  as  well  as  Volunteers. 

345.  With  regular  troops  messes  of  more  than  one 
company  should  not  be  allowed,  because  they  re- 
lieve company  officers  of  that  direct  responsibility 
for  the  welfare  of  their  men  and  interfere  with  the 
dissemination  of  practical  knowledge  among  indi- 
vidual soldiers.     Garrison  messes  foster  ignorance  of 
one  of  the  very  features  upon  which  success  in  the 
field  depends. 

Alcohol. 

346.  Alcohol,  at  one  time  part  of  the  ration  as 
whiskey  and  still  sometimes  suggested  for  use  under 
exposure,  is  not  desirable  in  health.     Academically 
considered,  taken  in  very  small  quantities  it  may  be 
regarded  as  a  food.     But  it  is  by  no  means  the  best 
food,  and  beyond  very  narrow  limits  it  creates  highly 
pernicious  conditions.     In  moderate  amounts  alco- 
hol is  of  immediate  but  very  temporary  assistance 
in  doing  muscular  work;  but  the  effect  is  so  tempo- 
rary, and  a  paralyzing  action  succeeds  so  immediately, 
that  the  work  done  reaches  a  minimum  in  about  half 
an  hour  and  fresh  doses  do  not  renew  the  force.     The 


82  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

sum  total  of  work  done  with  alcohol  is  less  than  that 
done  without  it. 

347.  The  quality  as  well  as  the  quantity  of  work 
done,  even  after  moderate  indulgence,  is  diminished; 
as  in  marksmanship,  type- writing,  and  even  in  con- 
tinuous marching. 

348.  The  brain  is  noticeably  affected  by  four-tenths 
of  one   part   per   thousand  parts    of   body  weight 
(.0004).     That  is,  a  trifle  over  half  a  pint  of  wine 
containing  10  per  cent,  of  alcohol  will  induce  in  a 
person  of  average  weight  sufficiently  noticeable  cere- 
bral changes  to  be  studied.     The  so-called  excite- 
ment induced  by  alcohol  is  really  more  or  less  inco- 
ordination    of    the    psychical    qualities.     Its  anaes- 
thetic   power    removes,    with    increasing    intensity, 
the  restraints  of  reason  and  judgment. 

349.  The  sense  of  warmth  felt  after  drinking  a 
small  quantity  of  alcohol  is  not  due  to  an  actual 
increase  of  bodily  temperature,  but  to  the  dilatation 
of  the  small  blood-vessels  of  the  stomach  and  the 
skin. 

350.  In  small  quantities  it  exercises  no  influence 
on  the  temperature  of  a  healthy  adult;    medium 
quantities  lower  his  temperature  a  little,  and  large 
quantities  produce  a  fall  of  several  degrees  for  sev- 
eral hours.     (Binz.) 

351.  Its  depressing  effect  on  the  temperature  oi 
the  body  is  a  cause  of  danger  in  its  use  in  severe 
climates,    where     freezing    easily    overtakes    those 
drinking;    and  the  experience   of    large   commands 
under  all  conditions  of  heat,  cold,  and  exposure  has 
demonstrated    their    greater    health    and    efficiency 
when  no  spirits  have  been  used.     In  garrison,  or  with 


FOOD.  83 

working  parties,  or  on  forced  marches,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  battle,  small  quantities  have  no  influence, 
and  the  moment  an  effect  is  felt  alcohol  is  hurtful. 

352.  Its  use  as  a  medicine  in  disease  is  entirely 
different  from  that  as  a  beverage  in  health,  and  is  a 
question   of   therapeutics,    not   of   hygiene.     Taken 
habitually,  alcohol  leads  slowly  to  morbid  changes, 
which  become  permanent  in  all  parts  of  the  body, 
and  its  daily   " moderate"   use  is  more  dangerous 
physically  to  the  consumer  than  are  periodical  de- 
bauches.    Even  in  moderate  quantities  alcohol  dis- 
turbs muscular  action,  alters  the  disposition,  and 
deranges  the  judgment;    but  the  effects  of  similar 
quantities    upon   different   persons    often   are   very 
unlike. 

353.  Independently  of  the  disease  it  may  induce, 
the  untrustworthiness  of  the  intemperate,  the  serious 
consequences  of  their  action  and  their  inaction,  are 
sufficient  reasons  for  discouraging  the  use  of  alcohol 
in  military  life.     And  although  no  man  expects  to  be 
a  drunkard,  nor  becomes  one  at  a  single  step,  the 
entire  avoidance  of  spirits  is  always  safer,  and  to 
many  is  easier  than  their  moderate  use. 

354.  Whiskey    contains    from  41.5  to    52.15  per 
cent.,  brandy  about  48.37,  and  American  beer  aver- 
ages about  5  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  all  by  volume. 
The  inveterate  beer  drinker  is  always  a  nuisance, 
although  not  so  active  a  one  as  the  whiskey  drinker. 

355.  Alcoholics     present    a     lowered     resistance, 
which   is   shown   by   increased   liability   to   disease 
and  by  a  greater  severity  of  the  disease.     Those 
who  habitually  drink  beer  to  excess  are  apt  to  have 
fat  in  positions  where  it  is  not  normally  present, 


84  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

the  most  dangerous  being  between  the  fibres  of  the 
heart. 

356.  The  most  deleterious  ingredient  in  distilled 
beverages  is  furfural,  from  the  more  complete  dis- 
integration of  the  bran.     It  appears  to  be  directly 
poisonous,  and  an  intoxicated  person  recovers  much 
less  slowly  than  after  drinking  purer  spirits. 

357.  "The   habit   of  taking   alcoholic   stimulants 
apart  from  meals  is  a  public  evil,  from  a  sanitary, 
economic,  and  intellectual  point  of  view/'     (Binz.) 
What  is  thus  true  of  civil  life  is  doubly  so  of  the 
military  service,  where  clear  and  swift  judgment  is 
required    of   the    leaders,    and   prompt   co-ordinate 
action  of  the  subordinates. 

358.  Nevertheless,  as  beer-drinking  is .  much  less 
subversive  of  discipline  than  is  spirit-drinking,  and 
particularly  as  spirit-drinking  out  of  garrison  is  a 
fruitful  cause  of  disorder  and  leads  directly  to  inci- 
dental disease,   a  well-regulated  Exchange,  wherein 
malt  liquors  may  be  sold  under  supervision,  pro- 
motes sobriety  and  military  efficiency  by  lessening 
the    temptation    to    debauches    beyond    the    lines. 
Although   a   voluntarily   abstinent   army  would   be 
most  desirable,  that  is  not  yet  attainable,  and  the 
best  substitute  is  one  content  with  the  moderate 
use  of  beer. 

359.  "Vino/'  a  crudely-distilled  liquor   found  in 
the  Philippines,  drank  in  very  small  quantities  with 
extreme  moderation  by  the  natives,  is  baneful  to 
whites  when  drank,  as  they  are  apt  to  do,  like  whis- 
key.    It  frequently  induces  acute  temporary  mania, 
and  its  persistent  use  wrecks  the  cerebral  centres. 

360.  Absinthe  is  a  peculiarly  poisonous   liqueur, 


FOOD.  85 

which  contains  from  47-80  per  cent,  of  alcohol  and 
the  aromatic  principles  of  wormwood  and  other 
plants.  Its  special  poison  is  due  to  these.  It  in- 
duces epileptic  attacks  as  well  as  delirium,  some- 
times in  succession,  sometimes  one  alone.  Unlike 
pure  alcohol,  it  occasions  hallucinations  from  the 
very  first.  It  quickly  and  completely  destroys  the 
nervous  system  of  the  victims  of  the  habit. 

361.  Wood  alcohol  (methylic    alcohol),  from  the 
destructive  distHlation  of  wood,  extensively  used  in 
the  arts,  is  highly  poisonous  to  drink,  and  the  vessels 
containing  it  should  be  plainly  marked  "Poison.'! 
Fatal  accidents  frequently  occur  from  the  want  of 
this  precaution. 

Tables  of  Food  Values. 

362.  These  tables  of  food  values  by  Prof.  W.  O. 
Atwater,    and    the    explanatory    remarks,    are    ex- 
tracted by  permission  from  Billings's  National  Med- 
ical   Dictionary    (1890).     The   potential    energy    of 
food  represents  its  ability  to  furnish  heat  and  mus- 
cular or  other  forms  of  energy  and  is  estimated  in 
calories. 

363.  A  calorie  is  the  heat  required  to  raise  one 
kilogram  of  water  1°  C.  (or  one  pound  of  water  about 
4°  F.) ;  and  as  a  foot-ton  is  the  energy  (power)  re- 
quired to  lift  one  ton  one   foot,  one  calorie  corre- 
sponds to  1.53  foot-tons. 

3G4.  A  gram  of  albuminates  or  of  carbohydrates  is 
supposed  to  yield  4.1  and  one  of  fats  9.3  calories; 
hence  weight  for  weight  when  digested  the  fats  have 
a  little  more  than  double  the  full  value  of  the  others. 


86 


NOTES   ON  MILITARY   HYGIENE. 


365.    PERCENTAGE   OF  DIGESTIBILITY   OF  NUTRIENTS. 


Food  materials. 

Albuminates. 

Fats. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Meats  and  fish.  .  . 

Practically  all 

79-92 

96 

Milk. 

88-100 

93-98 

? 

Butter  

98 

Oleomargarine  

96 

Wheat  bread.  .   . 

81-100 

? 

99 

Corn  -meal  

89 

? 

97 

Rice.  

84 

? 

99 

Pease  

86 

? 

96 

Potatoes  

74 

*      ? 

92 

Beets.  . 

72 

? 

82 

— Atwater,  Nat.  Med.  Diet. 

366.    STANDARDS   FOR   DAILY  ALLOWANCE   OF  FOOD. 


Albumi- 
nates. 

Fats. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Total. 

Potential 
energy. 

Child  to  1J  years  .  . 
"      "  2-6  years.. 
"     "  6-15  years. 
Aged  man.  . 

Grams. 
20-36 
36-70 
70-80 
100 

Grams. 
30-45 
35-48 
37-50 
68 

Grams. 
60-90 
100-250 
250-400 
350 

Grams. 
140 
295 
443 
518 

Calories 
765 
1420 
2040 
2475 

Man  at  hard  work, 
German  

145 

100 

450 

695 

3370 

Active  laborer,Eng- 
lish  

156 

71 

568 

795 

3630 

Hard  -  worked     la- 
borer, English.  .  . 
Man    at    moderate 
work,  American.. 
Man  at  hard  work, 
American.  . 

185 
125 
150 

71 
125 
150 

568 
450 
500 

824 
700 
800 

3750 
3520 
4060 

1  Ib.  avoir. =453. 6  grams.  1  oz.  =28.3  grams. 

—Atwater,  Nat.  Med.  Diet. 


FOOD. 

367.    NUTRIENTS  AND  POTENTIAL  ENERGY  IN  ACTUAL 
DIETARIES. 


87 


Albumi- 
nates. 

Fats. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Total. 

Potential 
Energy 
of  Nu- 
trients. 

Carpenter,  Munich  .  . 
Blacksmith,    E  n  g  - 
land  

Grams. 

131 

176 
114 
134 

157 

127 

181 

182 

254 
180 
120 
143 

Grams. 
68 

71 
39 

58 

285 

186 

292 
254 

363 
365 
161 
184 

Grams. 
.  494 

667 
480 
489 

331 

531 

557 
617 

826 
1150 
454 
520 

Grams. 
693 

914 
633 
681 

713 

844 

1030 
1053 

1443 
1695 
735 

847 

Calories. 
3194 

4117 
2798 
3093 

4652 

4428 

5742 
5638 

7804 

8848 
3851 
4998 

German  peace  ration 
German  war  ration.  . 
German      extraordi- 
nary ration,  Fran- 
co-German war.  .  . 
Factory    operatives, 
mechanics,       etc., 
Mass  

College    foot-ball 
team,  food  eaten.  . 
Machinist,  Boston.  .. 
Teamsters  and  other 
hard  workers,Bos- 
ton.           

Brick-makers,  Mass.. 
U.  S.  Army  ration*.. 
U.  S.  Navy  ration.  .  . 

This  table  represents  what  is  eaten,  rather  than  what  is  absolutely 
necessary. 
—  Atwater,  Nat.  Med.  Diet. 

*  Exclusive  of  the  pound  of  vegetables  added  by  the  Act  of  June  16, 
1890  and  of  later  minor  modifications. 


IV. 

HABITATIONS. 

Soil  and  Soil-air. 

368.  Soil,    hygienically,    is    that    portion    of   the 
earth's  crust  that  may  affect  the  health.     It  con- 
sists of  mineral,  vegetable,  and  sometimes  animal 
substances,  and  air  and  usually  water  are  contained 
in  its  interstices. 

369.  The  air  in  the  soil  is  generally  rich  in  carbon 
dioxide   (CO2),  and  may  be  charged  with  effluvia 
from  organic  decomposition.     As  much  as  26.3  to 
54.5  volumes  CO2  per  1000  air  have  been  found  13 
feet  below  the  surface.     This  air  is  always  in  motion, 
laterally  and  vertically. 

370.  The  movement  of  subsoil-air  is  due  to  changes 
of  temperature  in  the  soil  and  to  the  effect  of  rain, 
which  at  first  displaces  the  superficial  and  later  the 
deeper   air   by   changes   in   the   ground-water.     Its 
direction  depends  upon  the  least  resistance. 

371 .  The  artificial  warmth  of  a  house  draws  the  soil- 
air  (ground-air)  toward  and  into  the  cellar,  especially 
when  the  surface  is  frozen  or  closely  paved,  unless 
the  cellar  is  air-tight.      Hence  air  from  cesspools, 
broken  drains,  and  buried  decomposing  matter  of 
all  kinds  will  pass  into  the  cellar  as  in  a  flue. 

372.  Dug-outs  should  only  be  tolerated  in  whole- 
some soil,  and  all  permanent  habitations  should  be 

88 


HABITATIONS.  89 

cemented  below  the  level  of  the  ground  or  be  built  on 
arches. 

Soil-moisture  and  Ground-water. 

373.  Besides  air,  soils  contain  water,  divided  into 
moisture  and  ground-water.     The  soil  is  moist  when 
it  contains  air  as  well  as  water.     Ground-water  fills 
the  interstices  of  the  soil,  so  that  except  as  its  parti- 
cles are  separated  by  solid  portions  of  soil  there  is  a 
continuous  sheet  of  water.     Soil-moisture  is  derived 
in  part  from  the  rainfall,  when  the  amount  depends 
upon  the  supply  and  upon  the  ability  of  the  soil  to 
absorb  and  retain  it.     It  is  also  in  part  derived  from 
the  changing  level  of  the  ground-water  by  evapora- 
tion from  it  and  by  capillary  action.      It  may  di- 
rectly affect  the  air  of  habitations  and  their  walls. 

374.  In  relation  to  moisture,  soils  are  divided  into 
permeable   and  impermeable,  the  latter  being  un- 
weathered    granite,    trap    and    metamorphic    rocks, 
dense  clay,  clay  slate,  hard  limestone,  etc.     How- 
ever,  the   driest   granite   and   marble   will   contain 
about  a  pint  of  water  in  each  cubic   yard.     The 
permeable  soils  are  the  chalks,  sands,  sandstones, 
and   vegetable   soils.     Of   these   average   sandstone 
absorbs   about  25  per  cent,  and  ordinary  vegetable 
mould  from  60-75  per  cent,  of  rainfall. 

375.  Ground- water   or   subsoil- water,    the   water- 
level  of  the  engineers,  is  a  subterranean  sheet  lying 
at  different  depths  (from  two  or  three  to  hundreds  of 
feet)  below  the  surface,  not  necessarily  horizontal,  in 
constant  motion,  generally  toward  the  nearest  water- 
course, with  changing  level  and  varying  flow,  and 


90  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

affected  by  such  obstacles  as  the  roots  of  trees,  deep 
wells,  and  low  drains. 

376.  Soil-moisture,  the  superficial  dampness  im- 
mediately under  the  surface,  affects  health  by  aiding 
decomposition  of  contained  substances,  by  predis- 
posing to  catarrhal,  rheumatic,  and  neuralgic  affec- 
tions, and  by  furthering  consumption. 

377.  Ground-water    by    its    influence    upon    soil- 
moisture  may  affect  the  health  of  animals  as  well  as 
of  men.      In  two  stables,  identical  except  as  to  the 
distance  of  the  ground-water  (in  one  2^  ft.,  in  the 
other  5-6  ft.)   from  the  surface,  horses  were  con- 
stantly sick  in  the  one  and  not  in  the  other,  and 
equal  health  was  attained  by  draining  the  damper 
soil. 

378.  Soil  is  dried:   (1)  by  deep   drainage,  (2)  by 
opening  the  outflow  or  diverting  the  inflow.     Very 
deep    drainage    is    not  always     essential,   although 
desirable   in   a   damp   soil.     Lowering   the   ground- 
water   as   little  as  2  feet  has  been  known  to  make 
unhealthful  sites  salubrious.     It  is  usually  of  advan- 
tage to  substitute  for  a  few  inches  of  the  surface 
soil  a  mixture  of  quicklime  and  ashes. 

379.  But  newly  established  posts,  on  all  but  the 
most    impermeable    soils,    should    be    underdrained 
8-12  ft.   deep  with  lines   10-20  ft.   apart.     In  the 
extreme  south  deep  underdraining  should  be  carried 
out,  even  in  apparently  sandy  soils. 

380.  Tiles  once  properly  laid  are  practically  in- 
destructible.    In   laying   them   the   bed   should   be 
hollowed    in    undisturbed    soil    and    the    workmen 
should  excavate  it  by  resting  their  feet  on  a  berm 
about  a  foot  from  the  bottom.     A  fall  of  1  ft.  in  100 


HABITATIONS.  91 

is  sufficient,  and  with  good  workmanship  6  in.  is 
enough.  With  a  grade  less  than  one  in  a  hundred,  or 
with  a  bad  foundation,  begin  at  the  upper  end. 
With  a  greater  grade  begin  at  the  outlet. 

Character  of  Soils. 

381.  Granite,  metamorphic,  and  trap  rocks  and 
impermeable  clay  slates  are  usually  dry  and  healthful 
sites,  although  when   weathered  granite  is  said  to 
collect  vegetation  and  to  absorb  and  hold  moisture  in 
the  clefts.     With  all  of  these  drinking-water  may  be 
limited  in  amount. 

382.  Limestone  is  generally  dry  and   acceptable, 
but  apt  to  be  cavernous,  with  communicating  rifts 
through    which    contaminations    may    pass    to    the 
drinking-water,  which  is  hard,  clear,  and  sparkling. 
In  limestone  ranges  marshes  at  great  elevations  are 
not  uncommon,  presumably  due   to   the  retention 
of  water  and  debris  in  the  broken  surfaces  which 
characterize  that  formation. 

383.  A  high   ground- water  and   a   wet   and   un- 
wholesome site,  although  superficially  dry,  may  be 
found    in    very    elevated    mountain    valleys    which 
retain    the    rainfall    from    dominating    peaks  (e.g., 
Fort  Lewis,  now  discontinued). 

384.  Permeable  "sandstones,  the  air  and  soil  being 
dry,    are   very   salubrious  ;   but   shallow   sandstone 
underlaid    by    clay  may  be  damp.     Deep  gravels, 
unless  lower  than  the  general  surface,  are  always 
desirable,  and  gravel  hillocks  are  the  very  best  sites. 

385.  Pure  sand,  deep  and  free  from  organic  mat- 
ter, is  wholesome.     But  sands  lived  upon  soon  be- 
come charged  with  refuse,  the  gases  and  liquids  from 


92  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

which  pass  through  them  laterally  for  long  dis- 
tances. Some  sands  have  vegetable  debris  inter- 
mixed, and  others  have  water  within  a  few  feet  of 
the  surface  held  by  underlying  clay.  In  southern 
climates  shifting  sands  may  be  held  by  growing 
Bermuda  grass  or  lupine. 

386.  Clay  and  alluvial  soils  generally  are  suspi- 
cious.     Clay  retains  water  and  the  air  over  it  is 
usually  damp.     Vegetable  matter  and  impermeable 
strata  are  liable  to  be  intermixed  in  allu vials. 

387.  Well-cultivated    soils    are    generally    health- 
ful, rice-fields  being  the  exception,  and  these  should 
not  be  tolerated  near  military  posts,  partly  on  ac- 
count of  the  dampness  they  create,  but  chiefly  from 
being  breeding-places  for  mosquitoes. 

388.  Made  soils,  especially  near  towns,   are   fre- 
quently impure  and  should  always  be  avoided  for 
camps  or  cantonments.     The  character  of  the  soil, 
much  more  than  that  popularly  spoken  of  as  "the 
air  of  a  place,"  determines  the  healthfulness  of  the 
locality. 

Sites  Independently  of  Soil. 

389.  Unsalubrious  situations  independently  of  soils 
are  enclosed  valleys,  ravines  or  the  mouths  of  long 
ravines,  ill-drained  ground,  in  warm  climates  the 
neighborhood    of  marshes,   especially  if  the    wind 
from  them  carries  mosquitoes  to  the  post,  and  the 
northern    slope    of    mountains.     Through    ravines 
there  is  apt  to  be  a  current  of  air  in  one  direction  or 
the  other  during  the  day  and  in  reverse  at  night. 
The    out-current  where  vegetation  is  profuse  and 
decaying  is  impure,  and  posts  should  not  be  estab- 


HABITATIONS.  93 

Hshed  near  their  mouths.  This  may  lead  to  marked 
differences  in  temperature  and  local  humidity,  and 
the  out-current  may  carry  disease-bearing  insects 
therefrom  into  the  open. 

390.  On  sanitary  grounds  an  enclosed  valley  is 
objectionable,  as  interfering  with  free  ventilation  on 
a  large  scale  and  as  tending  to  concentrate  and  retain 
drainage.     Proximity  to  marshes,  especially  on  their 
level,  is  undesirable,  and  to  be  in  the  course  of  pre- 
vailing winds  in  southern  latitudes  is  apt  to  be  dis- 
astrous.    In  the  warmer  latitudes,  if  military  posts 
are  required  near  streams  they  should  be  on  the 
windward,    which   in   this    country   is   usually   the 
southern,  bank. 

391.  In  the  barren  regions  of  the  southwest,  camps 
and  posts  are  sometimes  established  where  there  is 
an  oasis  of  verdure,  because  it  is  attractive.     These 
are  generally  unhealthful,  on  account  of  too  high 
ground-water. 

392.  The  best  situation  for  a  post  is  a  divide  or 
saddle-back,  unless  it  is  too  much  exposed  or  with- 
out water.     Nearly  as  good  a  site  is  near  the  top  of  a 
slope,  and  if  the  crest  protects  against  fierce  winds 
it  is  better.     When  there  is  a  choice,  the  southern  is 
much  more  desirable  than  the  northern  side  of  moun- 
tains or  high  hills.     But  no  site,  whatever  its  alti- 
tude, unless  thoroughly  well  drained,  is  sanitarily 
acceptable  if  dominated  by  surrounding  heights. 

Vegetation  Near  Sites. 

393.  As   affecting  sites,  vegetation  is  classed  as 
herbage,  brushwood,  and  trees.     Herbage,  or  closely- 


94  NOTES    ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

lying  grass,  is  always  healthful.  But  in  otherwise 
arid  plains  a  verdant  oasis  indicates  a  damp  and 
therefore  unwholesome  site.  Herbage  should  always 
be  kept  closely  trimmed,  and  weeds  are  not  to  be 
tolerated.  All  rank  herbage  about  a  permanent 
post  should  be  cut  while  in  full  growth  and  be 
promptly  burned  before  decay.  But  it  is  better 
not  to  remove  primitive  vegetation  about  a  merely 
temporary  camp,  chiefly  because  of  the  additional 
labor  it  imposes  and  the  risk  of  making  hollows  to 
retain  water. 

394.  Belts  of  brush,  tall  shrubs,  and  heavy  vege- 
tation about  a  marsh  or  stagnant  water  check  the 
flight  of  malaria-bearing  insects  and  form  inviting 
refuges  for  them.     Such  vegetation  is  a  protection 
to  residents  in  the  vicinity. 

395.  In  hot  countries  the  shade  of  vegetation  cools 
the  ground.     Evaporation  from  the  surface  is  less- 
ened, but    that  from  the  vegetation  itself  percep- 
tibly lowers  the  temperature. 

396.  Vegetation  that  obstructs  the  sun's  rays  ren- 
ders evaporation  from  the  ground  more  difficult,  and 
the  roots  of  trees  impede  the  passage  of  water  through 
the  soil.     Forests,  therefore,  keep  the  ground  cold  and 
moist  in  cold  countries.     Their  removal  makes  the 
extremes  of  temperature  more  marked,  with  an  aver- 
age rise.     In  cold  countries  they  break  cold  winds, 
in  hot  countries  they  cool  the  ground,  and  they  may 
protect  against  currents  of  insect-infected  air. 

397.  Where  they  cut  off  sunlight  and  air  from  a 
domicile  and  make  it  dark  and  damp,  trees  are  doing 
harm,  but  they  should  be  removed  only  with  judg- 
ment.    In   establishing   a   permanent    post  remove 


HABITATIONS.  95 

no  more  trees  than  absolutely  necessary  until  time 
shows  which  can  be  spared. 

398.  Some  officers  dread  camping  in  the  woods, 
and  always  select  an  open  field.     That  is  the  result 
of  imperfect  knowledge.     The  character  of  the  forest 
must  be  considered.     The  Romans  habitually  en- 
camped under  trees,  and  their  example  is  generally 
good.     On  the  other  hand,  the  air  becomes  stagnant, 
especially  in  hot  countries,  by  thick  clusters  of  vege- 
tation intercepting  its  natural  currents;   and  in  the 
tropics,  while  shade  should  be  preserved,  the  forest 
should  not  be  allowed  to   grow  too  dense  around 
military  habitations. 

399.  All  vegetation  draws  water  from  the  ground 
by  capillary  action,  and  this  is  afterward  evaporated, 
making  the  soil  drier.     An  oak  tree  will  evaporate 
more  than  eight  times  the  precipitation  that  would 
occur  on  the  area  under  the  spread  of  its  foliage; 
the  eucalyptus,  which  only  grows  in  frostless  cli- 
mates, evaporates  eleven  times  the  rainfall;    and, 
according  to   Stockbridge,   one   acre   of  sunflowers 
exhales  during  the  growing  period  more  than  twelve 
and  a  half  millions  of  pounds  of  water.     In  this  way 
moist  regions  are  effectively  drained  and  made  unin- 
habitable for  mosquitoes.     Besides  its  efficiency  in 
removing  water  from  the  soil,  the  eucalyptus  is  so 
repugnant  to  the  mosquito  that  it  affords  a  perfect 
refuge  as  a  bivouac. 

400.  Summary  as  to  permanent  sites:   Avoid  soil- 
moisture,  ground-air  from  decomposing  organic  mat- 
ter, prevailing  winds  bearing  mosquitoes,  excessive 
elevation,  and  unnecessary  exposure  to  extremes  of 
temperature.      Drain    deeply,    except   through   im- 


96  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

permeable  underlying  rock;  carry  off  storm- water ; 
clear  away  brush,  except  about  marshes ;  if  possible , 
cultivate  grass  and  keep  it  short  over  adjacent 
ground;  preserve  trees,  to  remove  with  judgment 
later;  render  impermeable  the  ground  actually  built 
upon,  and  in  warm  climates  raise  houses  on  piers; 
and  preserve  the  soil  from  pollution  by  carrying 
away  impurities. 

Barracks  and  Quarters. 

401.  Barracks,    particularly    if    standing     below 
higher  ground,  should  be  protected  from  water  by 
trenches  deeper  than  the  foundation  wall,  filled  with 
loose  stone  to  form  blind   drains,  from  which  the 
collected  water  must  be  led  to  some  lower  point  for 
escape. 

402.  Foundation  walls  should  be  laid  in  mortar  of 
cement  and  sand  and  be  smooth  on  both  faces.     If 
not  drained  on  the  exterior,  the  outer  space  should 
be  filled  with  gravel,  which  will  conduct  rain-water 
flowing  down  without  the  wall  into  the  soil  if  porous. 
But  if  the  soil  be  clayey  or  springy,  the  bottom  of 
the  wall  must  be  drained,  and  it  is  better  to  have 
drains  lower  than  the  walls  in  all  cases. 

403.  Cellar  walls   that   are   laid   dry,   or  slightly 
pointed  on  the   inside,  have  their  stonework  dislo- 
cated by  freezing,  with  risk  of  the  water  passing 
through.     Where  sandstone,  soft  limestone,  or  brick 
is  used,   the    outside    of   the   wall  should  also   be 
coated    with    melted    coal-tar,    and    a    damp-proof 
course    be    carefully  introduced  to  check  moisture 
rising  by  capillary  attraction. 

404.  Theoretically  everywhere,  and  certainly  al- 


HABITATIONS.  97 

ways  in  damp  localities,  the  floors  of  cellars  should 
be  made  proof  against  ascending  moisture  by  well- 
puddled  clay  or  concrete.  Ordinary  cement  is 
neither  gas-tight  nor  water-tight  under  moderate 
pressure.  Where  there  are  no  cellars,  the  surface 
under  the  floors  should  also  be  rendered  impervious, 
and  there  should  be  a  sufficient  clear  space  for  effi- 

•  cient  policing.  These  requirements  are  frequently 
omitted  on  account  of  the  expense. 

405.  If  not  built  of  perforated  brick,  or  made 
double  with   an   air-space,    house  walls   should  be 
furred  as  well  as  plastered  to  avoid  dampness.    Com- 
mon stone  or  brick  is  very  absorbent,  and,  unless 
intercepted,  moisture  from  rain  will  pass   directly 
through,  making  the  rooms  both  cold  and  damp. 
Thin  walls  render  the  interior  warm  in  summer  and 
cold  in  winter. 

406.  Besides  healthful  sites,  the  essential  condi- 
tions of  barracks  are  dryness,  warmth,  light,  floor- 
space,   and   air-supply.     Casemates   are  necessarily 
dark   and   generally   are   ill- ventilated   and   damp. 
That  they  are  unfit  for  permanent  occupation  is 
shown   by   the   much  higher  sick-list  they  always 
present. 

407.  Barrack  buildings  must  always  be  arranged 
so  as  to  give  air  and  light  free  access  on  all  sides. 
That  is,  one  building  should  on  no  account  cast  its 
shadow  over  another,  except  possibly  at  an  end  of 
the  day,  nor  intercept  a  free  supply  of  air. 

408.  Nor  is  there  good  reason  for  preserving  the 
primitive  and  traditional  hollow  square  in  the  ar- 
rangement   of    individual    buildings.     While    they 
must  be  arranged  with  due  regard  to  military  con- 


98  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

venience  for  assembly  and  drill,  they  should  be 
placed  with  relation  to  sunlight  and  the  prevailing 
winds  so  as  to  get  the  utmost  advantage  of  locality 
and  climate. 

409.  Officers'  quarters  should  face  nearly  south,  or 
should  have  as  much  of  such  an  exposure  as  possible ; 
and  when  two  are  under  one  roof  they  should  not 
stand  east  and  west  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

410.  A  southern  exposure  is  warmer  in  winter,  and 
on  account  of  the  prevailing  winds,  at  least  at  our 
interior  posts,  is  generally  cooler  in  summer.     Parkes 
advises  the  long  axis  of  barracks  to  be  north  and 
south,  that  the  sun  may  fall  on  both  sides  of  the 
building.     But    when    our    simpler    buildings    face 
south,  the  sunlight  sufficiently  floods  the  rooms  and 
they  are  swept  by  the  southerly  winds. 

411.  The  more  elaborate  buildings  for  the  larger 
garrisons  should  be  planned  by  competent  archi- 
tects, not  mere  draughtsmen;    and  they,  in  turn, 
should    be    acquainted    with    the    peculiarities    and 
requirements  of  military  occupation.     Once  planned, 
the  directions  should  be  followed  throughout. 

412.  But    however    well   planned,    no  apartment 
should  receive  more  than  its  sanitary  number  of 
occupants  which,  together  with  the  net  cubic  feet, 
should   be   conspicuously   painted   upon   the   door. 
There  is   a  constant   temptation  to  overcrowd,  to 
assign  a  company  or  a  half-company  as  such,  instead 
of  a  fixed  number  of  men,  to  a  squad-room,  for- 
getting that  when  a  company's  quota  is  increased 
by  order  the  dormitory  is  not  equally  elastic. 

413.  In    rainless    regions,    from    sun-dried    brick 
(adobe)  may  be  built  houses  warm  in  winter  and 


I 


HABITATIONS.  99 

;ool  in  summer.  Where  the  country  is  heavily 
wooded  the  log-house,  best  if  square-hewn,  is  better 
than  one  of  sawn  timber,  which  is  quite  sure  to  be 
unseasoned  and  full  of  crevices.  Brick,  usually 
costly  at  first,  is  the  cheapest  in  the  end,  always 
provided  that  additional  quarters  are  built  for  a 
growing  garrison  and  that  more  men  are  not  crowded 
into  the  brick  house  already  occupied. 

414.  All  barracks,  at  home  or  abroad,  in  hot  cli- 
mates should  be  raised  on  piers  sufficiently  for  free 
circulation  of  air  beneath,  and  should  have  very 
broad  verandas.     In  tropical  regions  the  men  should 
sleep  well  above  the  ground,  and  tropical  barracks 
should  not  have  flat  roofs  unless  these  are  double 
with  an  ample  intervening  air-space. 

415.  The  better  permanent  barracks  are  of  two 
stories,  and  the  squad-rooms  should  always  be  on 
the  second  floor,  which  is  much  less  liable  to  invasion 
by  mosquitoes.     Barrack  stairways  should  be  wide, 
with  broad  steps  and  moderate  risers. 

416.  Mosquito-netting  is  a  required  sanitary  pre- 
caution against  malaria  where  the  anopheles  prevails, 
and  is  still  more  important  as  against  yellow  fever 
within  the   habitat   of  the  Stegomyia  fasciata.     In 
such  regions  its  careful  use  should  be  enforced  as  a 
matter  of  routine  discipline. 

417.  All  bedding  should  be  sunned  half  a  day  at 
least  once  a  week,  and  blankets  be  aired  every  fine 
day  and  occasionally  be  beaten. 

Floor-space  and  Ventilation. 

418.  In  the  squad-room  every  man  should  have 
at  least  600  cubic  feet  air-space  and  60  square  feet 


100  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

floor-space,  and  south  of  36°  N.  these  should  be 
800  and  70.  In  the  tropics  they  should  range  from 
1500  to  3000  cubic  feet  and  from  75  to  150  square 
feet.  Floor-space  should  be  calculated  according  to 
the  actual  number  of  cots,  regardless  of  average  occu- 
pation. For  air-space  allowance  may  be  made  for 
the  percentage  constantly  absent. 

419.  No  squad-room  should  be  less  than  12  nor 
more  than  14  ft.  high,  nor  more  than  24  ft.  wide. 
Excessive  width,  which  makes  ventilation,  the  com- 
plete penetration  of  sunlight,  and  ordinary  cleanli- 
ness more  difficult,  is  a  serious  error. 

420.  When  it  is  necessary  to  quarter  troops  in 
ordinary  dwellings,  the  rule  is: 

For  rooms  15  ft.  wide,  one  man  to  every  yard  in 

length; 
"       "      15-25  ft.  wide,  two  men  to  every  yard 

in  length; 
"       "      more  than  25  ft.  wide,  three  men  to  every 

yard  in  length. 

421.  Ventilation  is  securing  a  change  of  air,  and 
the  more  complete  with  the  least  discomfort  the 
better.     "  Perfect  ventilation  can  be  said  to  have 
been  secured  in  an  inhabited  room  only  when  any 
and  every  person  in  the  room  takes  into  his  lungs  at 
each  respiration  air  of  the  same  composition  as  that 
surrounding  the  building,  and  no  part  of  which  has 
recently  been  in  his  own  lungs  or  those  of  his  neigh- 
bors, or  which  consists   of  products   of  combustion 
generated  in  the  building,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
feels  no  currents  or  draughts  of  air,  and  is  perfectly 
comfortable  as  regards  temperature,  being  neither 
too  hot  nor  too  cold."     (Billings.) 


101 

422.  Perfect  ventilation  requires  a  room  of  special 
construction,  and  thirty  times  as  much  fuel  as  to  heat 
a  room  of  the  same  size  in  the  ordinary  way.     Good 
ventilation  means  keeping  the  vitiated  air  diluted 
to  the  standard  of  allowable  carbonic  impurity  (6-7 
in  10,000). 

423.  Air  is   necessary   for   human   existence,   as 
explained   presently,   and   ventilation  is  important 
because  after  the  air  has  been  destroyed  by  respira- 
tion it  is  immaterial  whether  the  original  supply 
was  600  or  6000  feet. 

424.  Air  is  a  mixture  of  21  parts  of  oxygen  (0) 
and  79  of  nitrogen  (N),  practically  1:4;  it  also  carries 
watery  vapor  from  ^  to  -^  of  its  bulk,  and  it  con- 
tains normally  four  parts  of  carbon  dioxide  (C02)  in 
10,000,  and  traces  of  argon  and  helium. 

425.  The  air  that  enters  the  lungs  meets  in  their 
very  delicate  membrane  blood  returning*  from  all 
parts  of  the  body,  into  which  blood  it  discharges  O 
and  from  which  it  receives  C02,  watery  vapor,  and 
perhaps  volatile  organic  matters.     This  occurs  by 
osmosis.     The  blood  must  constantly  bear  fresh  0 
to  the  tissues   or  life  will  cease,  and  waste  matter 
must  be  eliminated  for  the  same  reason. 

426.  Now  C02  by  itself  is  not  particularly  harm- 
ful, and  where  that  gas  alone  is  added,  the  air  may 
be  breathed  with  impunity  when  it  contains  many 
times  the  normal  amount,  as  at  certain  baths  where 
it  reaches  150  parts  in  10,000. 

427.  In  a   dormitory  the  C02  constantly  present 
and  inhaled  interferes  by  that  much  with  the  re- 
lease of  newly  formed  C02  from  the  blood ;  and  when 
given  off  by  the  lungs  it  represents  that  a  certain 


102  NOTES    ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

amount  of  O  has  been  taken  from  the  air  by  respira- 
tion. But  it  is  chiefly  as  an  index  of  other  contam- 
ination that  the  presence  of  CO2,  known  as  the  "car- 
bonic impurity/'  has  a  sanitary  value.  So  that  the 
danger  of  living  in  ill- ventilated  rooms  is  much  more 
serious  than  would  follow  inhaling  an  amount  of  C02 
equivalent  to  that  expired. 

428.  The  discomfort  that  persons  unaccustomed 
thereto  sustain  in  crowded  and  ill- ventilated  rooms  is 
not  due  to  excess  of  C02,  nor  to  bacteria,  nor  as  a 
rule  to  dust,  but  to  overheating  and  to  disagreeable 
odors.     The  precise  cause  of  the  musty  odor  in  such 
rooms  is  not  known,  but  it  is  presumed  to  be  due  to 
volatile  products  from  the  mouth  and  the  skin. 

429.  The  recognized  increase  in  disease  and  mor- 
tality among   those  living  in   crowded   and  unveii- 
tilated  apartments  is  probably  due  to  the  depraved 
atmosphere  lessening  the  general  vitality  and  weak- 
ening the  germ-destroying  powers  in  the  upper  air- 
passages. 

430.  Consequently,  as  such  rooms  are  specially  apt 
to    accumulate   germ-laden    dust,    their   debilitated 
occupants  are  very  liable  to  be  infected  with  and  to 
succumb  to  pneumonia  and  to  tuberculous  diseases 
of  the  lungs.     And  when  numerous  cases  of  tonsil- 
litis   occur   in   barracks,  deficient   ventilation    may 
always  be  suspected. 

431.  Civilized  men  in  their  ordinary  habitations 
may  suffer  from  :     (1)  The   diminution  of    the   re- 
spirable    quality   of    the    air    by   the    increase    of 
CO2    and    the   depressing   emanations  from   human 
bodies;    (2)  gases,  more  or  less  poisonous,  the  prod- 
ucts of  combustion;  (3)  the   compounds,  sometimes 
odorless   and   sometimes   giving    smell,    collectively 


HABITATIONS.  103 

known  as  sewer-air;  and  (4)  those  particulate  ema- 
nations, invisible  and  unrecognized  except  by  their 
results,  that  cause  the  contagious  diseases. 

432.  A  man  who. loses  his  life  by  plunging  into  a 
reservoir  of  C02,  as  a  deep  well  or  cistern,  suffers 
from  a  different  condition.     He  is  simply  drowned, 
as  he  would  bo  were  fresh  air  excluded  from  his  lungs 
by  water.     Possibly  in  such  cases,  however,  other 
actively  poisonous  gases  may  sometimes  be  present. 

433.  Nevertheless  besides  the  gradual  deterioration 
of  health  there  are  conspicuous  instances  of  direct 
poisoning  by  foul  air  combined  with  the  deprivation 
of  fresh  air. 

434.  The  fever  of  the  slave-ships,  the  camp  fever 
and  jail  fever  of  former  times  but  always  ready  to 
reappear,  the  immigrant  fever  of  the  Irish  packets  of 
past  years,  and  the  typhus  of  to-day  are  all  a  similar 
outcome  o!  the  poisoning  of  man  by  man. 

435.  Conspicuous  illustrations  of  poisoning  by  foul 
air  not  CQ,  are  the  steamship  Londonderry,  where 
72  out  of  200  died  while  confined  in  a  small  cabin; 
the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  where   146  were  con- 
fined overnight  in  a  space  of  18  feet  square,  with 
two   small   windows,   and   only  23  were  alive   the 
next   morning,  most   of   whom    died    afterward    of 
typhus    fever;     after    Austerlitz,  of   300   Austrian 
prisoners  confined  in  a  very  small  cellar  260  died 
"in  a  short  time." 

436.  Horses  transported  in  un ventilated  cars  have 
been  killed  under  precisely  similar  conditions. 

437.  We  do  not  now  often  meet  these  immediately 
serious  results  of  want  of  ventilation,  but  what  is 
generally  found  is  deficiency  of  nutrition,  leading 


104  NOTES   ON   MILITARY  HYGIENE. 

first  to  anaemia  or  deficient  blood,  then  to  Joss  of 
vigor,  and  then  to  general  diminution  of  resistance 
to  disease. 

438.  In  barracks  the  direct  consequences  of  the 
presence  of  many  human  beings  are  always  present; 
sewer-air  and  other  direct  poisons,  except  carbon 
monoxide  (CO),  are  rare;    and  contagious  diseases, 
except  accidentally  in  the  very  first  stage,  are  seldom 
found.     But  in  hospitals  the  emanations  from  dis- 
eased bodies  are  constantly  present  and  require  to  be 
neutralized  or  removed. 

439.  The  problem  of  securing  health  and  comfort 
in  inhabited  rooms  involves  preventing  and  dispos- 
ing of  dust,   regulating   temperature   and   perhaps 
moisture,  and  preventing  the  introduction  of  poison- 
ous gases  from  the  lighting  and  heating  apparatus, 
as  well  as  the  supply  of  an  adequate  amount  of  fresh 
air. 

440.  A  man  living  by  himself  out  of  doors  would 
have  so  much  fresh  air  as  not  to  suffer  from  the  con- 
ditions just  noted;  and  it  is  the  object  of  improved 
civilization  to  reduce  these  conditions  within  doors 
to  the  minimum. 

441.  Natural  air  contains  4  parts  C02  to  10,000, 
and  up  to  6  or  7  parts  hygienists  speak  of  the  CO2 
present  as  "  allowable  impurity."     In  excess  of  that 
it  means  too  great  contamination  from  other  condi- 
tions, which  is  known  as  "  crowd-poisoning."    Crowd- 
poisoning  may  also  occur  in  the  open  air,  as  when 
large  bodies  of  infantry  march  in  close  order  in  warm 
weather  in  a  stagnant  atmosphere. 

442.  Should  there  be  no  accidental  source  of  pure 
C02.   and  ordinarily  there  is   not  in   barracks,  all 


HABITATIONS.  105 


•  that  is  in  excess  of  4  to  10,000  is  the  CO2  of  respira- 
tion, or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  "  carbonic  impur- 
ity/' The  carbonic  impurity  in  itself  is  not  danger- 
oust  but  it  is  indicative  of  danger. 

443.  The  most  convenient  practical  test  for  this 
depressing  aerial  poison  is  the  sense  of  smell.     A 
" close"  or  "musty/'  to  say  nothing  of  an  offensive, 
smell  means  harm.     To  one  entering  from  the  outer 
air  the  recognition  of  any  odor  indicates  6  parts  CO2 
to    10,000,    including  that  normally   present.     The 
C02  is  not  odorous,  but  experience  shows  that  these 
conditions  coincide.     A  very  oppressive  odor  means 
more  than  12  parts  C02  to   10,000.     This  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  products  of  combustion,  and  refers 
only  to  animal  emanations. 

444.  The  simplest  chemical  determination  is  Smith's 
lime-water  test.     As  condensed  from  Munson,  it  is 
conducted  thus:    Six  clean  well-stoppered  bottles, 
ranging  from  100  to  450  c.c.  capacity,  filled  with 
distilled  water,  have  the  air  to  be  examined  intro- 
duced by  pumping  with  a  small  bulb-syringe  or  by 
pouring  out  the  water.     From  a  bottle  of  clear  fresh 
lime-water  15  c.c.  are  introduced  by  a  pipette  into 
the   smallest   bottle   of   air.     This   is   then   tightly 
closed  and  vigorously  shaken.     If  turbidity  occurs, 
there  are  at  least  16  parts  C02  in  10,000.     If  it  re- 
mains clear  the  other  bottles  may  be  tested  in  suc- 
cession, the  occurrence  of  turbidity  in  each  corre- 
sponding to  this  scale:    200  c.c. -12,  250=10,  300 
=  8,  350  =  7,  450  =  less  than  6  per  10,000.     Turbid- 
ity is  recognized  when  a  pencilled  cross  on  a  piece  of 
paper  gummed  with  the  face  against  the  lower  part 
of  the  bottle  becomes  invisible  through  the  water. 


106  NOTES   ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

445.  A  man  in  repose  breathes  18  times  a  minute,  ' 
about  two-thirds  of  a  pint  at  a  time.     He  exhales 
12-16  ft.  C02  in  24  hours,  or  .6  cubic  foot  per  hour. 
He  also  discharges  from  his  lungs  and  skin  25-40  oz. 
water,  requiring  211  cubic  feet  per  hour  to  maintain 
as  vapor. 

446.  Arloing  believes  that  he  has  secured  a  highly 
poisonous  agent  from  human  sweat,  and  if  this  is 
confirmed  it  will  help  to  account  for  some  of  the  very 
depressing   consequences   that   are   associated   with 
crowds  in  confined  spaces  under  high  temperature, 
with  the  air  saturated  with  aqueous  vapor. 

447.  It    is    very    doubtful   whether    disagreeable 
smells  as  such  directly  cause  disease,  but  as  Harring- 
ton suggests,  by  diminishing  the  appetite  of  those 
unaccustomed    to  them  they  may  depress  general 
health. 

448.  Air  once  breathed  loses  5  per  cent.  0  and 
gains  a  little  more  than  5  per  cent.  C02.     Besides  this 
effect  of  respiration  much  air  is  consumed  and  car- 
bon compounds  are  generated  by  the  combustion  of 
fuel,  whose  products  are  usually  conducted  into  the 
external  air  through  flues.    But  carbonic  oxide  (car- 
bon monoxide)  (CO),  one  of  the  products   of   coal 
consumption,  is  an  active  inodorous   poison  which 
escapes   freely    through  the    joints   of    stoves  and 
directly  through  red-hot  cast  iron. 

449.  Carbon  monoxide  (CO)  is  actively  poisonous, 
in  that  it  so  changes  the  blood  into  which  it  is  ab- 
sorbed as  to  render  it  incapable  of  carrying  oxygen. 
Because  it  is  inodorous  it  is  so  much  the  more  dan- 
gerous, as  it  is  only  recognized  by  its  effects.     "Less 
than  a  quarter  of  one  per  cent,  by  volume  in  the  air 


HABITATIONS.  107 

ill  cause  poisoning,  and  but  one  per  cent,  is  rapidly 
fatal  to  animal  life."     (Harrington.) 

450.  Carbon  monoxide  is  the  fatal  agent  in  the 
fumes  from  burning  charcoal,  by  which  it  is  given 
off  abundantly.     It  is  present  in  ordinary  illuminat- 
ing-gas, and  water-gas  fo  very  rich  in  it,  so  that  it 
poisons  the  air  when  it  escapes  from  leaking  fixtures 
or  the  combustion  is  imperfect.     From  a  good  burner 
properly  regulated  no  CO  escapes,  but  through  poor 
fixtures  or  in  partial  combustion  much  contamina- 
tion occurs.     Under  paved  streets  or  a  frozen  sur- 
face much  gas  escaping  from  the  mains  is  liable  to 
be  drawn,  into  cellars,  and  death  sometimes  follows. 
The  imperfect  combustion  of  mineral  oil  also  lib- 
erates CO. 

451.  Besides  the  possible  escape  of  CO,  illuminat- 
ing-gas while  burning  vitiates  the  air  by  the  produc- 
tion of  CO^  in  the  same  manner  as  human  respiration. 
During  the  time  it  is  in  operation  one  burner,  de- 
pending upon  its  form,  consumes  from  3  to  6  feet  of 
gas  per  hour,  and  every  foot  burned  produces  half  a 
foot  of  CO2.     To-  properly  dilute  it,  every  foot  of 
CO2  requires  1000  feet  of  fresh  air.     Certain  other 
minor  contaminations  are  also  given  off  in  this  com- 
bustion.    Every  pound  of  mineral  oil  burned  prop- 
erly  requires  8000  feet  of  air  for  its  dilution. 

452.  But  man  is  the  chief  source  of  this  contami- 
nation, and  to  keep  the  C02  down  to  the  standard  of 
allowable  impurity  requires  3000  cubic  feet  fresh  air 
per    occupant   per  hour,   because  a   man  does  not 
breathe  out  of  and  into  separate  reservoirs,  but  con- 
taminates the  air  about  him  which  he  and  his  neigh- 
bors must  continue  to  use. 


108  NOTES   ON  MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

453.  The  exhaled  matters  do  not  immediately  fly 
off  uniformly  into  space;   and  diffusion,  although  a 
steady  and  reasonably  rapid  process,  does  not  di- 
rectly overcome  the  effects  of  currents  caused  by 
varying  temperature. 

454.  When  much  difference  in  composition  exists 
between  the  upper  and  lower  strata,  the  upper  is 
usually  the  most  impure.     The  carbon  dioxide  does 
not  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  room,  although  prob- 
ably in  an  undisturbed  atmosphere  organic  particles 
thus  gravitate. 

455.  For  a  room  permanently  occupied,  with  ordi- 
nary ventilation,  a  capacity  of  1000  cubic  feet  per 
head  is  the  lowest  limit,  but  for  healthy  soldiers  in 
ordinary  squad-rooms  in  temperate  climates  600  feet 
per  man  is  sufficient,  under  proper  provisions  for 
renewal. 

456.  Cavalry  should  have  somewhat  greater  allow- 
ance than  infantry,  to  dissipate  unavoidable  stable 
odors. 

457.  Emanations  from  the  sick  in  hospitals,  having 
specific  poisons  of  their  own,  require  extreme  dilution. 

458.  It  is  probable  that  the  greater  the  amount  of 
fresh  air,  especially  if  it  contains  ozone,  the  more  rapid 
is  the  oxidation  and  simultaneous  destruction  of  some 
disease  causes. 

459.  Ozone  is  an  allotropic  condition  of  oxygen, 
probably  arranged  as  020.     It  possesses  a  very  much 
higher  oxidizing  power  than  oxygen,  hence  when  it 
is  found  it  may  be  inferred  that  there  is  very  little  or 
no  oxidizabfe  material  present. 

460.  All  ventilation  depends  upon  (1)  the  diffu- 
sion of  gases,  which  is  the  property  by  which  every 


HABITATIONS.  109 

gas  will  freely  and  rapidly  expand  into  the  space 
occupied  by  another  gas,  practically  as  though  that 
space  were  a  vacuum,  and  the  mixture  will  not  sepa- 
rate, and  (2)  the  entrance  and  exit  of  air  from  and 
into  the  outer  atmosphere. 

461.  The   diffusion   of  gases   establishes   uniform 
foulness  as  well  as  freshness,  but  has  little  effect  over 
floating  organic  matter. 

462.  All  natural  ventilation,  independently  of  the 
diffusion  of  gases,  depends  practically  upon  differ- 
ences of  temperature  whereby  the  relative  positions 
of  parts  of  the  atmosphere  are  changed. 

463.  External  ventilation  depends  on  heat,  a  con^ 
spicuous  illustration  being  the  trade  winds.     Where 
temperature  is  uniform  over  large  regions,  especially 
if  it  is  very  hot,  the  air  may  not  move  much  and  the 
oppressive  feeling  of  stagnation  is  not  imaginary. 

464.  But  within  enclosed  walls  provision  must  be 
made  for  the  escape  as  well  as  the  entrance  of  air. 
The  simplest  method  is  through  open  doors  and  win- 
dows on  opposite  sides  of  a  room,  so  that  the  wind 
may  blow  through.     This  is  perflation. 

465.  Perflation  should  be  practised  daily  in  every 
barrack,  to  sweep  out  all  the  air  formerly  present. 
The  only  exception  is  when  rain  or  snow  would  beat 
in  on  the  windward  side,  but  even  then  the  opposite 
side  must  be  opened  part  of  the  day.     It  cannot  be 
kept  up  in  severe  weather  while  the  room  is  occupied, 
and  in  any  weather  where  the  external  temperature 
is  much  lower  than  that  within,  the  discomfort  of 
draughts  will  forbid  the  partial  opening  of  windows. 

466.  The  natural  ventilation  of  buildings  depends 
chiefly  on  aspiration  due,   as  are  also   the  natural 


110  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

winds,  to  differences  in  temperature.  The  outer  air 
in  motion  leaves  in  passing  over  points  of  exit  possi- 
ble vacuums  into  which  the  interior  air  moves  and 
thence  escapes  or,  as  popularly  expressed,  is  drawn 
out. 

467.  The  required  rate  of  supply  depends  upon 
the  size  of  the  apartment,  the  occupancy  being  the 
same.     Thus  a  space  of  100  cubic  feet,  in  order  to 
supply  an  inmate  with  3000  cubic  feet  of  air  an  hour, 
must  be  renewed  thirty  times  within  that  period, 
while  one  of  1000  feet  would  require  renewal  only 
thrice. 

468.  The  floor-space  should  be  from  60-80  ft.  or 
more  per  man,  according  to  climate  and  to  capacity, 
and  ordinarily  all  height  above  12  ft.  may  be  disre- 
garded in  arranging  for  ventilation. 

469.  The  supply  of  3000  ft.  per  hour  requires  the 
600  ft.  per  man  to  be  renewed  five  times  within  that 
period,  and  this,  if  the  apartment  is  small,  is  some- 
times difficult  and  at  ordinary  temperatures  uncom- 
fortable.    Thus,  through  a  space  of  500  cubic  feet 
supplied  by  an  inlet  of  12  square  inches  the  movement 
would  be  at  the  rate  of  10  ft.  per  second,  or  nearly 
7  miles  an  hour;   through  24  square  inches  it  would 
be  5  feet,  or  3.4  miles.     In  a  small  room  disagreeable 
draughts  would  be  created  by  such  currents,  but 
ventilation  of  larger  spaces  will  be  easier  because  in 
them  the  currents  are  more  readily  broken,  although 
much  depends  on  the  locality  and  the  size  of  the 
inlets. 

470.  But  the  air  cannot  pass  out  unless  there  is 
opportunity  for  other  air  to  take  its  place.      We 
must  therefore  have  a  difference  of  temperature  and 


HABITATIONS.  Ill 

an  opportunity  for  both  ingress  and  egress  of  air, 
as  illustrated  by  a  common  stove.  Hence  in  at- 
tempting to  warm  a  house  by  a  hot-air  furnace,  the 
effort  "to  keep  the  heat  in"  by  closing  the  openings 
into  the  outer  air  fails;  but  when  a  window  is  raised 
for  the  escape  of  cold  air,  the  warm  air  flows  in  from 
below  to  replace  it. 

471.  The  introduction  and  extraction  of  air  by 
machinery  is  necessary  in  large  and  complex  build- 
ings, but  not  in  ordinary  barracks,  which  alone  we 
are  discussing,  where  the  change  depends  upon  the 
movement   of   the   external   atmosphere   and   upon 
difference  in  temperature  within  and  without. 

472.  In  winter,  when  doors  and  windows  must  be 
closed,  the  difference  of  temperature  is  a  chief  factor, 
and  ventilating  openings  are  smaller  as  this  difference 
increases. 

473.  The  following  are  simple  methods   for  the 
admission  of  air,  requiring  no  special  appliances: 

(1)  Where  the  sashes  do  not  fit  accurately,  wedges 
between  them  will  allow  a  considerable  current  of  air 
to  enter  the  length  of  the  crack  and  escape  by  the 
chimney  or  other  flue. 

(2)  Raise  the  lower  and  lower  the  upper  sash;  air 
will  enter  where  the  displaced  borders  fail  to   fit 
closely. 

(3)  Raise  the  lower  sash  a  few  inches  and  fill  the 
space  beneath  with  a  light/  iDoard.     Air  enters  where 
the  sashes  no  longer  join. 

(4)  Where  the  sashes  are  double,  always  have  a 
movable  pane  in  the  outer  one.     But,  usually,  some 
special  method  of  direct  communication  with  the 
outer  air  is  better. 


112  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

474.  For  ordinary  climates  fair  ventilation  can  be 
established  by  a  box  or  tube  running  across   the 
room  under  the  ceiling,  open  to  the  outer  air  at  each 
end,  with  a  perpendicular  diaphragm  in  the  middle. 
The  sides  are  perforated  with  numerous  considerable 
openings,  and  the  air  will  enter  from  the  half  toward 
which  the  air  is  blowing  and  will  escape  through 
the  other  half.     If  necessary  the  amount  of  entering 
air  can  be  controlled  by  valves  at  the  extremities. 

475.  Generally    the    section-area    of    inlets   must 
equal  that  of  outlets.     Exception:  Where  a  strong 
outgoing  current  over  a  large  area,  like  a  chimney, 
makes  the  indraught  through  small  sections  much 
more  rapid.      The  English  authorities  call  for   24 
square  inches  per  head  for  both  inlet  and  outlet. 
That  is  excessive  for  this  country  with  its  greater 
range  of  temperature. 

476.  All  air-shafts  should  be  smooth  in  order  to 
relieve  friction,  which  greatly  retards  air  in  motion, 
and  must  be  placed  (1)   so  as  to  avoid  direct  cur- 
rents between  entrances  and  exits,  and  (2)  to  direct 
the  air  from  plane  surfaces,  along  which  it  has  a 
marked    tendency    to    adhere    and   roll    instead  of 
immediately*  diffusing    itself    through    an    enclosed 
space. 

477.  The  most  generally  convenient  method  for 
admitting  air  to  ordinary  barracks  is  to  carry  shafts 
from  the  open  air  directly  under  the  heating  appa- 
ratus.    Their  outer  ends  should  be  turned  down  to 
prevent  wind  blowing  directly  through  with  violence. 
With  a  jacket  about  the  stove,  the  air  may  be  warmed 
before  it  spreads  over  the  room ;  or,  in  the  same  way, 
it  should  be  conducted  upward  at  the  base  of  steam 


HABITATIONS. 


113 


coils,  that  it  may  not  flow  over  the  floor  while  yet 
cool.  Exit  shafts  are  to  be  placed  in  the  ceiling 
near  the  eaves  on  both  sides  of  the  room,  tall  enough 
to  use  the  aspirating  force  of  the  wind  from  either 
direction.  In  low  temperatures,  or  wherever  there 
is  danger  that  cold  air  may  enter  these  channels  on 
one  side  of  the  house  as  well  as  escape  on  the  other, 
valves  may  be  arranged  to  prevent  it. 

478.  A  simple  plan  of  ventilation  is  that  of  one  or 
more  tubes  or  shafts  through  the  ceiling,  extending 
higher  than  the  ridge  and  divided  longitudinally 
into  two  or  four  of  smaller  calibre.  The  air  enters 
by  one  and  escapes  through  another  channel.  This 
makes  no  provision  for  its  distribution  within  the 
room,  and  the  incoming  air  is  liable  to  escape  at  once. 


479.  A  better  method  is  to  enclose  one  tube  or 
shaft  within  another  of  larger  area  and  pass  both 
from  the  ceiling  through  the  ridge,  the  inner  tube  being 


114  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

the  longer  in  each  direction  and  having  flanges  at 
its  lower  end.  The  heated  air  will  escape  by  the 
inner  tube  and  fresh  air  will  enter  by  the  outer  chan- 
nel and  be  diverted  throughout  the  room  by  the 
lateral  projections.  (See  figure  from  Parkes.)  The 
shelf  must  frequently  be  wiped  for  dust. 

480.  Ridge  ventilation,  peculiarly  a  method  for 
hospitals  but  perfectly  applicable  for  barracks,  is  in 
substance   an   opening   about   18  inches   wide,   the 
length  of  the  ridge,  covered  by  an  independent  roof 
18-24  inches  higher,  with  sides  open  in  whole  or  in 
part,  and  communicating  with  the  ceiling  by  a  boxed 
opening  extending  into  it. 

481.  In  the  cold  season,  for  ridge  ventilation  must 
be  substituted  boxed  shafts   18-24  inches  square, 
from  the  tie-beams  to  beyond  the  ridge,  utilizing 
the  stove-pipe  to  assist  the  outward  current. 

482.  Where  there  are  both  inlet  and  outlet  tubes 
and  no  aspirating  apparatus  is  used,  if  the  air  is 
warmed    before    entrance,    it    should    be    admitted 
near  the  floor;   if  it  is  cold,  at  the  ceiling,  and  the 
exits    should  be  placed  reversely.     Small  rooms,  in 
which  doors  are  frequently  opened,  usually  require 
only    places    of    exit.      But    wherever    ventilating 
shafts    are    required   they    should   be     small     and 
numerous  rather  than  large  and  few. 

483.  It  is  not  ventilation  when  the  incoming  air 
is  not  fresh  or  the  outgoing  air  does  not  pass  directly 
into  the  outer  atmosphere.     To  connect  the  air  of  a 
sleeping-room  with  that  of  an  attic,  whether  the  lat- 
ter  has  windows  or  not,  does   not   necessarily  ven- 
tilate either. 

484.  Fresh  air  is  not  necessarily  cold  air.     Air  may 


HABITATIONS.  115 

% 

very  properly  be  warmed  without  injury  before  it  is 
breathed.  No  system  of  natural  ventilation  in  sum- 
mer will  make  the  air  in  the  house  cooler  than  that 
outside. 

485.  Most   walls,    unless    especially   massive   and 
well  built,  are  permeable  to  air,  and  this  is  particu- 
larly true  where  the  plastering  is  laid  directly  upon 
the  brick.     This  permeability  of  walls  is  one  reason 
why  the  apparent  want  of  ventilation  is  not  more 
serious  in  its  results.     But  it  cannot  be  depended 
upon  to  take  the  place  of  a  regular  system. 

486.  Painted  or  papered  walls  are  more  nearly 
air-tight.     A    hard-finished    wall    may    be    washed 
down   with  a  disinfectant    or  otherwise    when   re- 
quired.    As  a  matter  of  routine  this  should  be  done 
every  six  months   and    fresh   paint   applied  every 
two  years.     But  if  such  a  room  has  many  occupants, 
there  must  also  be  numerous  and  sufficient  openings 
for  air. 

487.  The   ordinary   sources    of   contamination   of 
contained  air,  besides  the  human  body,  are:   Leaks 
from  sewer-pipes;   up-currents  from  imperfect  traps 
in  waste-pipes;  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  in 
closets   and   cellars;    products    of   combustion   and 
leaks  of  gas. 

488.  Numbers  seem  to  intensify  the  ill  effects  of 
human  contamination,  so  "that  the  more  men  are 
placed  together,  the  greater  should  be  the  air-supply 
per  head."     It  is  difficult  to  impress  upon  company 
officers  the  evil,  as  distinguished  from  the  merely 
unpleasant,  effects  of  overcrowding,  for  they  appear 

lowly. 

489.  There  is  no  excuse  for  decomposing  vegetable 


116  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

• 

matter  within  the  building,  which  is  very  hurtful, 
and  its  prevention  is  simply  a  matter  of  police. 

490.  The  fresh-air  supply  of  heating  furnaces  or  of 
cold   fresh-air  shafts    should   be    carefully  guarded 
against  contamination  from  drains  and  slop  deposits, 
and  the  furnace  proper  from  cracks  through  which 
the  gases  of  combustion,  especially  CO,  may  leak 
into  the  hot-air  chamber.      Steam    and  hot-water 
coils  do  not  pollute  the  air. 

491.  Ill- ventilated    rooms    are    not    immediately 
fatal.     They  cause  languor,  headache,  loss  of  appe- 
tite, weakened  resistance  to  disease,  and  then  posi- 
tive illness.     For  all  this,  increased  air-space,  not 
medicine,  is  the  remedy.     In  European  armies  con- 
sumption, which  formerly  ravaged  them,  has  almost 
disappeared  with  the  increase  of  air-space. 

492.  In  the  French  cavalry  stables  prior  to  1836 
the  mortality  was  180-197  per  1000  per  annum.     In 
1862-66  it  was  27.5  per  1000.     In  the  war  of  1859 
10,000    horses  were    kept    in    open    barracks    with 
scarcely  any  sick  and  but  one  case  of  glanders. 

Miscellaneous. 

493.  It  is   a  mistake   to  make  barracks  unduly 
large,  either  in  the  width  of  the  dormitory  or  by 
adding  unnecessary  rooms.     The  labor  of  caring  for 
them  does    not    compensate  for  the  possible    con- 
venience.    Wainscoted  walls  become  frequent  har- 
bors of  vermin. 

494.  Floors  should  be  cleansed  with  the  least  pos- 
sible water,  preferably  by  dry  scrubbing,  to  avoid 
the  ultimate  decay  of  wood  and  especially  the  lodging 


HABITATIONS.  117 

and  perpetuation  of  organic  matter  in  the  cracks  and 
fibres. 

495.  On  ground  floors  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  slops,  dust,  and  debris  generally  being  run 
under  the  floors  and  thus  creating  a  shallow  cesspool 
there. 

496.  Plaster,  brick,  and  porous  stone  ultimately 
absorb  organic  poisons,  which  is  a  special  liability  in 
guard-houses  and  hospitals.     Such  walls  and  ceilings 
should  be  scraped  at  least  once  a  year  and  be  lime- 
washed  twice  a  year  with  fresh  lime.     The  plaster 
should  be  renewed  at  least  once  in  ten  years,  and 
after  any  epidemic. 

497.  Steam   coils   in   dormitories   should   not   be 
placed  near  the  walls,  which  means  near  the  sleepers7 
heads,  as  is  the  temptation  for  economy  of  space, 
but  along  the  centre  of  the  room. 

498.  Kitchen  waste  and  dish-water,  full  of  animal 
and   vegetable  fragments  prone   to   decomposition, 
should  never  be  thrown  on  the  ground  near  by,  but 
should  be  carefully  carried  away  and  if  possible  dis- 
posed of  by  fire.     This  and  all  forms  of  exterior  as 
well  as  of  interior  police  should  be  very  scrupulously 
observed,  especially  in  tropical  countries. 


V. 

CAMPS  AND  MARCHES. 

* 

Bivouacs  and  Camps. 

499.  A  bivouac  implies  that  the  troops  are  resting 
in  the  field ,  with  no  other  shelter  than  is  carried  upon 
the  person  or  may  be  extemporized.     A  camp  im- 
plies that  the  troops  are  sheltered  by  tents  or  other 
temporary  structures.     Where  shelter- tents  are  car- 
ried, bivouac  and  temporary  camp  shade  into  each 
other  and  here  are  treated  as  identical. 

500.  Camps  are  temporary  or  are  camps  of  posi- 
tion.    The  former  are  usually  determined  by  imme- 
diate and  imperative  conditions;   the  latter  are  usu- 
ally established  after  forethought.     The  same  gen- 
eral principles  of  sites  apply  to  camps  as  to  permanent 
posts,  and  frequently  both  the  military  and  the  sani- 
tary requirements  can  be  complied  with. 

501.  The  essentials  of  even  the  most  transitory 
resting-place  for    overnight    are  water,  wood,   and 
grass,  and  the  avoidance  of  marshy  ground.     Wolse- 
ley  advises  as  a  military  precaution  always,  when 
possible,  to  shield  an  infantry  camp  from  the  enemy 
by  a  screen  of  woods.     This  advice  applies  equally 
in    barricading    against    the    breeding-grounds    of 
mosquitoes. 

502.  Men  should  not  be  allowed  to  sleep  directly 

118 


CAMPS   AND   MARCHES.  119 

on  the  ground,  except  in  the  rainless  regions.  A 
waterproof  sheet  to  protect  from  soil-dampness 
should  not  be  abandoned,  and  straw,  hay,  boards, 
rails,  anything  but  green  foliage,  should  be  insisted 
upon  as  a  resting-place.  Fresh  boughs  may  better 
be  used  than  nothing. 

503.  When  a  camp  lasts  longer  than  a  day,  whether 
tents  are  used  or  not,  the  men  should  be  encouraged 
to  prepare  sleeping-places  raised  at  least  a  few  inches 
above  the  ground.    In  the  Spanish  war,  where  a  camp 
stood  in  the  woods,  men  who  had  been  permitted  to 
sleep  on  platforms  in  the  trees,  10  or  12  feet  in  the 
air,  retained  their  health,  possibly  on  that  account, 
when   their   comrades   sleeping   nearer    the   ground 
were  sick. 

504.  In  the  absence  of  tents,  protection  from  the 
wind  may  be  obtained  within  a  circle  of  earth  18  ft. 
in  diameter  with  walls  3  ft.  high.     The  earth  should 
be  taken  from  the  outside,  not  from  within;    there 
may  be  a  small  fire  in  the  centre,  toward  which  the 
men's  feet  should  lie;   the  single  entrance  should  be 
to  leeward. 

505.  Ordinarily  a  position  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  is 
pleasanter  than  one  on  the  summit  or  in  the  valley. 
But  convenient  proximity  to  water  should  never  be 
sacrificed  to  other  advantages  than  that  of  freedom 
from  malaria-bearing  mosquitoes.     Indians  and  deer 
rest  on  hill-tops  in  summer  and  in  the  brush  of  val- 
leys in  winter,  and  their  example  may  safely  be 
followed. 

506.  Where  trees  are  available,  a  convenient  shel- 
ter is  made  by  resting  a  pole  on  two  forks,  4  or  5 
feet  from  the  ground,  against  which  branches,  thick 


120  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

end  up,  are  piled  at  an  angle  of  45°  on  the  windward 
side. 

507.  In  the  field  a  small  fire  is  the  best  for  personal 
warmth.     An  Indian  will  squat  over  such  a  fire  or 
lie  down  by  it  and  be  comfortable,  while  a  white  man 
builds  one  so  large  that  he  cannot  approach  it,  and 
is  cold. 

508.  The  first  duty  on  halting  for  the  day  is  to 
post  sentinels  over  the  water-supply  and   to  desig- 
nate a  place  to  attend  to  the  calls  of  nature.     Sinks 
are  to  be  dug  with  the  first  tools.     The  only  excep- 
tion to  digging  sinks  is  when  the  command  is  very 
small,  bivouacs  after  dark,  is  certain  to  march  the 
next  day,  and  it  is  known  that  none  will  follow. 

509.  Sinks  should  be  placed  so  as  not  to  be  in  the 
course  of  the  prevailing  winds  to  camp,  and  must  be 
so  that  they  cannot  pollute  the  water  either  directly 
or  by  soakage.     They  should  be  well  dug  at  the  be- 
ginning, and  no  plea  that  the  command  will  move 
the  next  day  should  postpone  the  duty,  for  nothing 
is  more  uncertain  than  future  military  movements. 
(See  par.  742.) 

510.  The  question  of  sinks  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant  and  perplexing  of   camp   hygiene.     Some- 
times the  underlying  rock,  at  others   the  ground- 
water,  is  so  high  that  deep  trenches  cannot  be  dug. 
Nothing  remains  but   to  use  shallow  trenches,   to 
keep  regiments  far  apart,  and  to  change  the  site  fre- 
quently until  formal  apparatus  is  provided  for  the 
reception   and   removal  of  the  faecal   and   urinary 
discharges. 

511.  Where  the  site  permits,  sinks  should  be  dug 
for  each  company  or  small  battalion,  but  they  would 


CAMPS   AND   MARCHES.  121 

better  be  multiplied  than  individual  ones  be  too 
long.  The  most  useful  field-sink  is  a  trench  2  ft. 
wide  at  the  top,  from  12  to  20  ft.  long,  and  from  3  to 
10  ft.  deep,  in  proportion  to  the  probable  stay.  .The 
earth  should  be  thrown  to  the  rear  and  a  layer  of  a 
few  inches  from  it  be  covered  in  twice  a  day,  or 
of tener-  if  necessary.  Shallow  sinks  should  be  com- 
pletely covered  in  one  foot  from  the  surface,  deep 
ones  at  2  or  3  feet.  All  sinks  should  be  well  covered 
and  marked  on  breaking  camp. 

512.  Sinks  should  be  screened  by  bushes.     In  tem- 
porary camps  a  pole  serves  as  seat;   in  permanent, 
box  seats  open  to-  the  rear  may  be  placed.     In  hot 
climates  there  should  be  some  protection  from  the 
sun,  and  in  rainy  places  the  rain  should  be  diverted. 

513.  Urinals  may  be  placed  nearer  the  camp,  and 
in  permanent  camps  it  is  important  to  have  them 
of  easy  access.      Some  diseases  may  be  propagated 
by  urine,  so  the  receptacles  should  be  conveniently 
arranged  and  properly  controlled. 

514.  Nothing  is  so  demoralizing  or  so  distinctly 
marks     ill-disciplined    troops    as    soil-pollution    by 
human  waste,  and  apart  from  its  intrinsic  nastiness 
it  is  a  powerful  factor  in  the  spread  of  disease.     Filthi- 
ness  thus  becomes  an  offence  against  health  as  well 
as  against  decency. 

515.  As  flies  may  transport  on  their  feet  to  the  food 
the  causes  of  dangerous  diseases  which  lie  in  the 
sinks,  these  should  be  remote  from  the  kitchens  and 
preferably  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  camp.     (See 
par.  764.) 

516.  Flies  may  be  diminished  about  a  field  sink 
by  burning  in  it  twice  a  day,  or  oftener,  a  little  paper 


122  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

or  straw  saturated  with  mineral  oil.  Or  the  petro- 
leum may  be  poured  moderately  over  the  surface 
and  fired.  Quicklime,  when  procurable,  is  cheap 
and  valuable  as  a  disinfectant;  but  in  some  regions 
it  cannot  be  had,  and  its  distribution  in  a  large 
army  is  impossible. 

517.  The  Quartermaster's  Department  now  sup^ 
plies  camps  of  position  with  a  combination  apparatus 
which  receives  the  discharges  and  disinfects  them, 
and  at  stated  intervals  these  are  pumped  into  an 
odorless  wheeled  tank  for  removal  elsewhere.     As 
the  regulation  size  is  only  arranged  with  seven  seats, 
and  as  they  are  necessarily  much  more  in  demand 
at  certain  periods  of  the  day  than  at  others,  these 
receptacles  must  be  numerous  in  order  to  supply 
the  requirements  of  an  army.     When  they  can  be 
used   they  will  quite  replace  sinks,  but  the  more 
mobile  the  force  the  less  available  will  they  be. 

518.  Portable  earth-closets,  whose  contents  are  re- 
moved   twice  a  day,  have  been   issued  in   some  of 
the  eastern  islands. 

519.  The  kitchen  should  be  promptly  established, 
and  in  the  same  relative  position  as  if  the  camp  were 
to  persist  a  month.     A  pit  should  be  dug  near  by  for 
strictly  liquid  refuse,  and  solid  matter  put  in  a  box 
or  barrel  for  the  police  party  to  transport  to  a  dis- 
tance.    When  possible,  a  better  method  is  to  make  a 
deep  excavation  covered  so  as   to  exclude  atmos- 
pheric heat,  the  only  opening  being  a  small  trap- 
door.    Flies  will  avoid  the  dark  interior,  and  putres- 
cence will  be  delayed  by  the  comparative  coolness. 

520.  Old  camp-grounds,  always  liable  to  be  foci  of 
disease,  should  never  be  occupied.     Only  the  most 


CAMPS   AND   MARCHES.  123 

vital  exigency  allows  this  general  and  imperative 
rule  to  be  disregarded.  The  arrangement  of  a  camp 
is  prescribed  by  the  regulations. 

521.  Whenever   a    tent   is   pitched   it   should   be 
ditched,  and  as  soon  as  the  troops  are  rested,  usually 
the  second  day,  the  company  streets  and  other  spaces 
should  be  marked  out  and  protected. 

Tents. 

522.  Four  styles  of  tents  are  issued: 

(1)  Conical  (modified  Sibley) :  16  ft.  5  in.  in  diameter 
at  base ;  wall,  3  ft. ;  apex,  18  in.  in  diameter,  10  ft.  from 
the  ground;  floor,  212  square  ft.;  air-space,  1450  ft.; 
allowance,  20  infantry  or  17  cavalry;  comfortable  for 
half  that  number  in  a  camp  or  slow  march.     It  may 
have  a  stove,  it  has  a  hood  open  at  the  side  and  at 
the  apex,  and  it  is  both  economical  and  comfortable. 

(2)  Common  ("I"  or  modified  "A"):   wall,  2  ft.; 
base,  8  ft.  4  in.X6  ft.  10  in.;  ridge,  6  ft.  10  in.  from 
ground,  and  it  has  a  ventilator  with  a  flap,  3X6  in., 
front  and  rear;   floor,  57  square  ft.;   air-space,  250 
ft. ;    allowance,  4  mounted  or  6  foot  men.     Each 
infantryman  would  have  17  in.  to  lie  in. 

(3)  Wall:  9  ft.  square X 3  ft.  9  in.;   to  ridge,  8  ft. 
6  in. ;   floor,  81  ft. ;   air-space,  500  ft. ;   covered  by  a 
fly,  or  false  roof,  for  one  or  two  officers'  use  in  fixed 
camps.     In  active  operations  officers  may  use  tents 
like  their  men's. 

(4)  Shelter  tent,  as  described  later. 

523.  Tents  are  to  be  tan  color.     The  conical  and 
wall  tents  are  for  reasonably  permanent  camps  or 
for  slow  movements  in  heavy  order.     The  shelter 
tent  is  for  campaign. 


124  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

524.  Dry  canvas  is  permeable  to  air.     When  it  is 
wet  the  organic  particles  are  confined  and  the  inter- 
change of  gases  is  checked,  so  that  a  closed  wet  tent 
speedily  becomes  poisonous  to  its  occupants;    and 
wet  or  dry,  even  allowing  for  probable  absentees, 
the  quarters  are  too  close  for  permanent  occupation. 

525.  Hospital  tents  are  larger  wall  tents  (14X15 
X  4J  ft.  wall,  12  ft.  to  ridge)  that  may  be  opened  at 
each  end  and  thrown  together  in  extension.     These 
always  have  flies,  which  protect  the  tent  from  rain 
and  from  the  sun's  heat. 

526.  It  has  been  found  that  in  tropical  climates 
the  interior  of  all  tents  is  much  hotter  than  the 
interior   of   ordinary   houses,   probably   on   account 
of  the  thinness  of  the  walls. 

527.  Munson  has  therefore  devised  a  hospital  tent 
where  the  fly  shall  be  white,  to  reflect  the  heat  rays, 
and  the  tent  itself  drab ;  the  fly  to  be  2  ft.  longer  and 
4  ft.  wider  than  heretofore,  and  to  rest  on  a  false 
ridge  1  ft.  above  the  tent  ridge,  and  2  ft.  longer  in 
each  direction;    a  section  of  canvas,  4  ft.  wide  and 
12  ft.  long,  along  the  ridge  of  the  tent  proper,  to  be 
replaced  by  a  rope  netting.     This  secures  adequate 
ventilation,  and  the  roof  opening  can  be  closed  in 
bad  weather,  in  whole  or  in  part,  by  a  flap.     In  very 
hot  weather  the  temperature  in  such  a  tent  has  aver- 
aged seven  degrees  less  than  in  an  ordinary  hospital 
tent,  and  it  has  been  as  much  as  18.5°  F.  less  than 
in  a  conical  tent. 

528.  Tactical     considerations     permitting,     tents 
should  open  to  the  east,  in  order  to  be  flooded  with 
the  early  sunlight. 

529.  A   tent  is  not  properly  pitched   until  it  is 


CAMPS    AND   MARCHES.  125 

ditched.  The  tent  ditch  should  be  6  in.  wide  by 
4  in.  deep  directly  at  the  base  of  the  wall,  and  thence 
follow  the  natural  slope  of  the  ground  into  the  com- 
pany ditch.  This  should  never  be  omitted,  for  the 
habit  is  a  valuable  one  to  acquire  and  it  frequently 
prevents  flooding. 

530.  The  company  streets  with  a  careful  system 
of  drainage  should  be  promptly  arranged,  certainly 
not  later  than  tfre  second  day;   for  very  little  camp 
labor  is  more  profitable. 

531.  Tent  walls  should  be  raised  for  several  hours 
every  fair  day;  all  the  bedding  and  the  covering  of 
the  floor  to  be  withdrawn  and  exposed  to  the  sun, 
and  every  particle  of  refuse  to  be  removed  and,  if 
possible,    burned.     In   warm   weather   the   leeward 
side  may  be  raised  at  night. 

532.  If  floored,  every  board  should  be  loose  and 
removed  frequently  and  the  ground  beneath  cleansed. 
A  fixed  floor  is  neater  in  appearance,  but  waste  mat- 
ter will  work  through  and  cannot  be  reached.     The 
temptation  to  conceal  articles  under  loose  boards  is 
to  be  controlled  by  vigilant  inspection. 

533.  Every  tent  should   have  adjacent  to  it  an 
equal   area    vacant,   in   addition    to    the    company 
street,  and  be  changed  to  the  new  site  once  a  week, 
and  the  old  site  to  be  scraped  and  exposed  to  the  sun. 

534.  Permanent    camps    should    be    as    open    (or 
widespread)  as  possible,  for  the  evils  of  overcrowd- 
ing and  the  necessity  for  fresh  air,  the  want  of  venti- 
lation, and  the  accumulation  of  debris  always  in- 
crease directly  with  the  size  of  the  command. 

535.  Armies   of   considerable   size,  and  especially 
troops  in  campaign,  depend  on  the  shelter  tent,  each 


126  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

man  carrying  one-half  as  personal  equipment,  so 
that  two  men  have  an  entire  tent  between  them. 
A  shelter  half  is  a  piece  of  canvas  65X61  in  ,  with  a 
triangular  flap  at  one  end.  The  halves  are  buttoned 
over  light  poles,  also  part  of  the  equipment,  so  that 
the  ridge  is  nearly  4  ft.  high  and  the  base  of  the  tri- 
angle is  5  ft.  5  in.  long.  One  end  is  closed  by  the 
flaps  at  an  outward  angle,  which  increases  the  length 
12  in.  Four  straps  let  into  one  border  serve  to  make 
the  blanket  roll  more  compact,  when  the  half  is  used 
to  wrap  it.  When  dry  each  half  weighs  about  two 
pounds  and  a  half. 

536.  In  any  but  a  most  temporary  camp  log  walls, 
from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  high,  chinked  with 
mud,  are  often  raised  and  the  tents  used  as  roofs. 
Then  shifting  is  impracticable  and  the  internal  police 
must  be  the  more  carefully  enforced. 

537.  In  camps  of  position  in  the  winter  soldiers 
are  tempted  to  burrow  for  warmth.     As  a  rule  this 
is  hurtful,  but  occasionally  it  may  be  tolerated  in 
very  dry  soil.     The   question  should  be  settled  in 
advance  after  examination. 

538.  Where  timber  is  available,  the  best  camps  of 
position   are  huts.     For  four  men  Colonel   Smart, 
Medical  Department,  suggests: 

Dimensions:  Inside,  13X7  ft.;  to  eaves,  6  ft.; 
to  ridge,  10  ft. ;  door  in  the  middle  of  one  long  side, 
chirtmey  opposite,  outside  of  wall.  On  each  side  of 
doorway  a  double  bunk.  This  should  be  roofed 
with  canvas  14X12  ft.  with  a  larger  fly,  both  readily 
detachable  for  transportation.  This  hut  is  large 
enough,  for  greater  size  means  more  inmates  and 
relative  crowding. 


CAMPS   AND   MARCHES. 


127 


539.  For  squads  of  eight,  the  unit  of  the  present 
tactics,  there  should  be  two  huts  8X11  ft.,  end  to 
end,  6  ft.  apart  with  one  continuous  canvas  or  other 
roof  and  doors  in  the  adjacent  ends,  but  not  midway. 
The  chimney  would  be  in  the  middle  of  one  long 
end.  Two  platforms  each  6£X4£  ft.,  one  lengthwise 
and  one  across  the  end,  would  accommodate  two 
men  apiece  sleeping  with  their  heads  adjacent. 
(See  figure.) 


11  ft.  11  ft. 

Ground-plan  of  two  huts  of  four,  with  covered  porch. 

The  covered  porch  between  the  huts  would  be 
6X9  ft.  in  the  clear,  the  sleeping-platform  be  open 
beneath,  and  under  no  pretence  should  two-story 
bunks  be  allowed.  In  the  absence  of  timber,  adobe 
walls,  or  wattles  plastered  with  clay,  are  available 
for  these  huts. 

540.  Minimum  spaces  between  huts  in  the  same 
row  should  equal  the  height  of  the  walls,  and  the 
passage  in  rear  should  equal  the  height  of  the  ridge. 
But  should   this   encroach   too   much  upon  ample 
company  streets,  camp  must  be  formed  in  column 
of  divisions. 

541.  The  intervening  spaces  are  always  to  be  care- 
fully  policed,    for   pollution    there   will   ultimately 
defile  the  air  drawn  into  huts.     All  ordinary  refuse 


128  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

should  be  burned,  if  military  considerations  permit. 
Otherwise  it  must  be  removed  where  it  will  not  be 
offensive  to  any  camp,  or  be  buried. 

542.  Hut  sites  and  streets  are  to  be  well  pounded 
and  drained,  for  dry  streets  for  company  formations 
are  important,  and  the  whole  camp-ground  should 
be  systematically  freed  from  moisture  by  ditching, 
otherwise  the  ground-air  will  be  poisoned  and  the 
streets  will  be  muddy. 

543.  In  fixed  camps,  as  well  as  in  garrison,  con- 
stant occupation  and  amusement  are  indispensable 
for  health  and  efficiency.     A  marching  column  is 
always  healthy,  and  the  sick-list  grows  with  the  age 
of  the  camp.      Excursions  outside  of  camp  lines, 
and  expeditions   conducted  on  military  principles, 
are  of  double  advantage. 

544.  In  winter  camps  systematic  efforts  to  amuse 
the  men  are  important.      These  may  include  dra- 
matic   and    vaudeville   entertainments,  lectures  on 
practical  subjects  by  officers,  and  especially  music. 
Martial  music  particularly  appeals  to  most  men,  and 
good  bands  are  good  hygienic  agents. 

545.  The  dreary  monotony  of  winter  camps,  the 
limited  quarters,  poor  opportunities  for  cleanliness, 
indifferent  artificial  light,  long  evenings  and  delayed 
dawns,  are  depressing  enough  and  lead  the  unstable 
nervous  equilibrium  to  seek  relief  through  the  abuse 
of  cards,  tobacco,  and  alcohol.     This  must  be  con- 
stantly remembered,  and  the  horrible  ennui  be  dis- 
sipated, if  an  efficient  and  hopeful  command  is  to 
be  maintained. 


CAMPS   AND    MARCHES.  129 


Marches. 

546.  The  direct  step  of  30  inches  at  90  per  minute 
for  common  and   120  for  quick  or  marching  time 
gives,  without  halts,  2^  and  3f  miles  per  hour.     In 
practice  it  is  a  little  more  than  2  and  about  3  miles 
respectively. 

547.  "The   flexion   step    (pas   de   flexion)    of   the 
French,  in  which  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  thrown 
forward  and  all  the  joints  are  bent,  is  said  to  give 
admirable  results ."     (Private  letter.) 

548.  Double  time  gives  35  inches  at  180  steps  per 
minute.     It  yields  175  yards  a  minute  or  nearly  6 
miles  an  hour.     This  is  not  a  marching  step  and  is 
too   exhausting   for  more   than   rushes   and   street 
fighting.     It  is  simply  a  gymnastic  exercise  which 
should    commence   with    very   short   intervals,  and 
after  prolonged  practice  it  should  never  exceed  20 
minutes  as  a  maximum  for  picked  troops.      Men 
should  be  encouraged  to  fall  out  at  will,  for  until 
trained  up  to  it  it  is  very  easy  to  strain  a  heart  per- 
manently by  such  work. 

549.  The  German  step  of  32  inches  at  114  in  com- 
mon (3.5  miles  per  hour)  and  120  for  attack  seems 
too  long  a  step  to  be  persisted  in.     The  English 
quick-step  is  30  inches,  120  a  minute,  the  double  is  33 
inches,  175  a  minute.     In  "stepping  out"  the  pace 
is  33  inches. 

550.  The  first  stage  in  a  long  march  should  always 
be  short,  and  with  troops  unseasoned  in  marching  it 
should  be  very  short,  gradually  increasing  until  the 
maximum   is   reached   in   a   fortnight.     But    those 


130  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

accustomed  to  marching  drills  can  attain  this  maxi- 
mum sooner. 

551.  One  entire  day,  besides  Sundays,  in  every 
eight  or  ten  should  be  used  for  rest  and  repairs ;  and 
seasoned  infantry  will  fairly  outmarch  cavalry  in  a 
prolonged  journey  or  campaign.     But  if  it  can  be 
avoided,  infantry  should  not  march  with  mounted 
troops. 

552.  Marching  is  influenced  by  the  weather,  the 
roads,  the  spirit  of  the  men,  the  immediate  object 
in  view,  and  the  size  of  the  command.     The  ease 
with  which  troops  march  is  inversely  to  the  size  of 
the  command.     Over  good  roads  14  miles  in  10  hours 
is  good  marching  for  a  large  army,  but  a  regiment 
easily  makes  the  same  distance  in  four  hours. 

553.  If  possible,  move  troops  in  columns  parallel 
to  the  roads  and  reserve  these  for  trains,  for  the 
great  comfort  of  having  the  wagons  well  up  when 
camp  is  made  is  full  recompense  for  the  somewhat 
greater  fatigue  of  the  route.     And  infantry  should 
march  with  as  wide  a  front  and  in  as  open  order  as 
possible  to  avoid  crowd-poisoning,  which  may  occur 
in   stagnant  air  outdoors  as    well   as    in   confined 
quarters. 

554.  Frequent  halts  are  desirable:  the  first  of  15 
minutes  at  the  end  of  2  miles  or  less,  and  afterward 
10  minutes  per  hour.     At  the  first  halt  men  should 
be  encouraged  to  relieve  themselves  and  to  adjust 
loads. 

555.  Men  should  not  be  fretted  by  being  held  in 
ranks  through  a  halt  whose  length  is  uncertain.     It 
is  no  waste  of  time  for  men  at  every  halt  to  spread 
out  and  rest,  but  they  should  not  be  allowed   to 


CAMPS    AND    MARCHES.  131 

straggle.  For  them  to  lie  down  flat,  on  the  face  or 
back,  is  the  most  restful,  always  provided  they  are 
protected  from  wet  soil. 

556.  The  French  save  time  and  avoid  the  mud  by 
squads  of  20  or  30  forming  a  circle,  and  each  man  sit- 
ting on  the  knee  of  the  man  behind  him. 

557.  No  particular  command  should  resume  the 
march  until  its  rear  is  well  closed  up  and  rested,  and 
except    with    very    small    commands,    leading    files 
should  not  be  allowed  to  hesitate  at  minor  obstacles 
of  mud  and  water.     Jerky  progression  is  trying  to 
the  muscles  and  temper  of  the  men  at  the  rear  of 
the  column. 

558.  Music  is  a  real  aid  in  marching;  the  fife  and 
drum   are   exhilarant,  and   a  full  band  stimulates. 
The  tap  of  the  drum  assists  a  common  step.     March- 
ing troops  should  always  be  encouraged  to  sing. 

559.  Raw  troops  invariably  overload  themselves 
at  first  and  throw  away  recklessly  afterward.     The 
packs  should  be  carefully  inspected  and  every  ounce 
not  authorized  be  rigorously  discarded,  but  after- 
ward no  necessary  clothing  allowed  to  be  thrown 
away. 

560.  The  authorized  pack  should  always  include 
a  change  of  underwear,  by  preference  of  flannel. 
But  necessaries  should  be  carried  at  all  hazards, 
although  with  new  troops  the  enforcement  of  this 
rule  is  difficult. 

561.  Even  in  temperate  climates  new  men  are  apt 
to  chafe  in  the  groins  and  buttocks,  and  they  will 
break    down    with    these    temporary    disabilities    if 
pressed  too  hard  at  first.     In  the  tropics  such  abra- 
sions afford  an  inviting  sphere  for  distressing  para- 


132  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

sitic  diseases,  notably  "dhobieitch,"  which  positively 
disqualify. 

562.  Unseasoned  men  with  inappropriate  foot-gear 
may  become  disabled  from  sore  or  blistered  feet. 
Tenderness,  the  skin  not  being  abraded,  is  simply 
bruising  of  unaccustomed  muscles  and  is  only  to  be 
prevented   by  practice  walks.     Soreness  or  chafing 
comes  from  misfitting  shoes,  and  is  usually  the  man's 
fault.     The  Germans  treat  sore  feet  as  a  military 
offence.      All  such  men  should  be  sent  to  sick  call 
when  the  camp  is  reached,  for  relief  but  not  to  be 
readily  excused.     Permission  to  ride  should  be  given 
sparingly  for  its  effect  on  others.     (See  pars.  176- 
181.) 

563.  If  a  man  who  " walks  on  the  nail"  has  inad- 
vertently been  enlisted,  he  should  be  taken  out  of 
the  ranks  at  once  and  discharged.     He  is  useless  as 
a  soldier.     (See  par.  79.) 

564.  Men  should  be  required  to  keep  the  hair  short, 
and  to  bathe  daily  the  head,  the  feet,  the  armpits, 
and   groins,    the   anus,   and   the   genitals.     General 
cleanliness  is  always  important,  but  that  of  the  groins 
and  feet  is  necessary  for  efficient  marching.     The 
army,  with  any  approach  to  equality  with  its  ad- 
versary, that  marches   best  will  win  the  campaign. 

565.  Some  experienced  men  when  marching  use 
merely  a  damp  cloth  on  the  face  and  neck  at  rising, 
and  wash  only  the  eyes  and  mouth.     The  face  is 
then   less  irritated   by   the   dust   of   the   way.     On 
reaching  camp  the  more  completely  the  person  is 
bathed  the  better. 

566.  As  a  rule,  in   temperate  climates,  no  fluid 
should  be  drunk  except  with  meals  or  when  the  end 


CAMPS   AND   MARCHES.  133 

of  the  march  is  near.  The  rare  exception  is  for 
the  relief  of  positive  exhaustion  from  excessive  per- 
spiration. But  canteens,  filled  before  starting  with 
weak  tea  or  water,  should  be  carried  as  a  precau- 
tion. 

567.  The  sensation  of  thirst  is  in  the  fauces  and  is 
relieved  by  carrying  in  the  mouth  a  small  solid  like  a 
pebble,  which  creates  moisture  by  the  flow  of  saliva. 
Abstinence  from  fluid  while  marching  is  an  easily 
acquired  habit  of  great  convenience,  while  the  man 
who  begins  to  drink  water  en  route  finds  himself  in  a 
state  of  chronic  thirst. 

568.  But  to  avoid  heat-stroke  in  the  tropics  when 
the  blood  loses  much  of  its  fluid  from  perspiration, 
the  judicious  use  of  water  to  supply  this  waste  is 
necessary.      But    even  then  the  privilege  is  liable 
to  abuse,  and  intelligent  non-commissioned  officers 
should  be  on  the  alert  to  control  it.     The  canteens 
should  never  be  replenished  from  the  roadside,  but 
only  from  a  regimental  supply  of  boiled  water  car- 
ried along. 

569.  As  a  rule  camp  should  not  be  broken  before 
daylight,  and  night  marches  are  to  be  avoided.     The 
broken    rest  outbalances  any  ordinary  advantages 
of  prolonged  repose  later.     Except  over  well-defined 
and  open  roads  night-marching  is  difficult,  and  from 
a  military  point  of  view  such  expeditions  are  noto- 
riously liable  to  fail.     Elsewhere  than  on  a  broad 
smooth  road  under  full  moonlight,  double  the  ordi- 
nary time  should  be  allowed  for  night  expeditions. 

570.  Straggling  is  a  serious  evil  indirectly  affecting 
the  health  and  the  morale,  and  directly  concerning 
the  military  vigor  of  the  column.     All  who  claim  to 


134  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

be  sick  should  be  promptly  and  rigidly  inspected  by  a 
medical  officer,  and  those  adjudged  well  be  sent  for- 
ward, while  the  ill  are  to  be  carefully  transported. 

571.  An  adequate  ambulance   train  should   con- 
stantly be  on  hand  for  the  transportation  of  the  really 
ill,  and  good  troops  will  always  repay  thoughtful 
care  by  putting  forth  their  best  effort  in  the  faith  of 
protection  when  disabled. 

572.  A  probable   illustration  of  overmarching  is 
the  German  Garde-Corps,  presumably  selected  troops. 
They  left  the  Rhine,  August  3d,  with  30,000  infantry; 
lost  less  than  9000  in  action,  and  the  morning  after 
Sedan  numbered  13,000  for  duty;  and  reached  Paris 
September  19th  with  9000  present.      In  about  seven 
weeks  more  than  11,000  men  were  broken  down  by 
exertion,  for  the  camps  were  so  short  and  the  opera- 
tions so  active  that  little  sickness  occurred.     Never- 
theless, as  a  rule  marching  troops  are  healthy  troops. 

Carriage  of  Weights. 

573.  The  soldier  in  the  field  must  carry  certain 
necessaries  whose  aggregate  weight  is  considerable. 
It  is  the  object  in  all  services  to  reduce  this  to  the 
minimum,  nevertheless   the  British  infantry   carry 
about  50  Ibs.  and  the  continental  infantry  between 
60  and  75  Ibs.  per  man.     It  is  folly  to  suppose,  as 
sometimes  suggested,  that  a  soldier  may  have  his 
personal  belongings  habitually  carried  for  him. 

574.  It  is  the  method  of  carrying  rather  than  the 
gross  weight  that  is  oppressive.     The  real  harm  comes 
from  the  pressure  across  the  chest  and  under  the  arm- 
pits interfering  with  respiration  and  circulation,  and 
the  want  of  ventilation  at  the  back. 


CAMPS   AND   MARCHES.  135 

575.  "  Until    some   more   satisfactory   method   of 
carrying  the  pack  has  been  de vised "  the  blanket- 
roll,  an  arrangement  by  which  spare  clothing  and 
small  articles  are  enclosed  in  a  blanket  rolled  length- 
wise and  carried  across  the  body  from  one  shoulder 
with  the  ends  tied  together,  has  been  authorized. 

576.  The  blanket-roll  is  the  natural  substitute  for 
the  knapsack  evolved  by  the  exigencies  of  the  field, 
but  it  also  is  oppressive  in  that  it  impedes  chest 
movement,  and  it  is  inconvenient  in  affording  no 
protection  for  the  contents  when  the  blanket  is  in 
use.     The    Parker    clothing-case    is    a    convenient 
refinement  of  the  blanket-roll  for  the  better  care  of 
the  smaller  articles.     It  is  carried  in  the  same  manner. 

577.  The    Merriam    equipment,    with    no    straps 
impeding  respiration  or  circulation,  with  the  back 
free  from  contact  and  the  weight  chiefly  supported 
on  the  hips,  is  the  most  rational  of  these  appliances, 
and  has  stood  the  test  of  experience. 


VI. 

SEWERS  AND  WASTE. 

Definitions. 

578.  Sewage  is  the  waste  of  inhabited  places  and 
sewerage  the  system  of  water-carriage  that  removes 
it.     A  sewer  is  a  conduit  for  the  removal  of  waste, 
generally  meaning  excrementitious  waste.     A  drain 
is  a  channel  to  remove  water,  surface  or  subsoil;  but 
house-drains  sometimes  mean  those  carrying  kitchen 
waste  or  laundry  water  into  sewers. 

579.  The  separate  system  of  sewerage  is  that  which 
carries  only  sewage.     The  combined  system  carries 
sewage  and  storm-water  together. 

580.  Sewer-air,  a  better  term  than  sewer-gas,  rep- 
resents air  contaminated  with  emanations  from  the 
solid  contents  of  sewers,  either   in  bulk  or  as  coat- 
ing the  pipes. 

581.  A  water-closet  is  an  apparatus  for  the  imme- 
diate removal  of  excrementitions   waste  from   the 
place  of  deposit,  commonly  within  a  dwelling.     A 
seal  is  a  barrier,  generally  liquid  and  usually  of  water, 
intended  to  prevent  the  upward  passage  of  sewer- 
air.      A  trap  is  a  mechanism  to  retain  the  seal  in 
position. 

136 


SEWERS   AND    WASTE.  137 

Sewers  and  Waste-pipes. 

582.  Sewers    that   carry   storm-water  as   well  as 
sewage  should  be  oval  in  section,  small  end  down; 
otherwise  solid  matter  would  lie  in  bars  when  sew- 
age alone  is  passing.     But  separate  sewers  should 
be  circular,  just  large  enough  to  carry  house  waste 
and  small  enough  to  be  completely  flushed  by  it. 
Special  ventilation  must  be  arranged  for  any  sewer 
whose  outlet  is  liable  to  be  closed  temporarily  by 
the   tide.     The   combined   system  is   inappropriate 
for  ordinary  military  posts. 

583.  The  amount  of  sewage  should  be  approxi- 
mately calculated  in  advance  ~nd  the  conduit  built 
for  it.     Pipes  that  convey  sewage  should  always  be 
water-tight.     But   those  intended   only   for  storm- 
water  are  sometimes  laid  dry,  in  order  also  to  drain 
the  ground. 

584.  Small  waste-pipes  are  the  more  efficient,  be- 
cause the  friction  is  less,  and  the  greater  the  pressure 
the  greater  the  velocity  with  less  chance  of  obstruc- 
tive sticking. 

585.  Waste-pipes  for  single  fixtures  need  not  ex- 
ceed 1^  in.  and  should  not  exceed  2  in.  in  diameter. 
For  soil-pipes,  3  to  3J  in.  is  ample.     The  outlets  of 
all  waste-pipes  should  be  full-bore,  and  they  should 
join  the  main  soil-pipe  at  an  acute  angle. 

Water-closets. 

586.  A  water-closet  consists  of  a  bowl  attached  to 
a  pipe  leading  to  the  sewer.     It  is  supplied  with  water 
to  wash  down  the  contents,  and  with  a  trap  and 
seal  in  close  proximity  to  bar  the  sewer-air. 


138  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

587.  If  the  water-closet  bowl  is  not  fouled  above 
the  seal,  and  the  seal  is  of  sufficient  depth  and  kept 
intact,  the  house  is  considered  safe.     But  ventila- 
tion and  disconnection  are  important  auxiliaries  to 
divert  the  products  of  decomposition. 

588.  Mechanical     closets     are     the     "pan,"     the 
"valve,"   and   the   "plunger,"  all  bad,   the   "pan" 
being  the  worst.     These  are  relics  of  early  styles 
and  multitudes  are  still  in  use,  but  none  should  be 
introduced. 

589.  The  "pan"  closet  never  receives  a  sufficient 
flow  of  water,  the  pan  itself  and  the  container  are 
continually  smeared  with  excrement,  and  there  is  a 
recess,  necessarily  foul,  from  which  odorous  gases 
enter  the  apartment  whenever  the  pan  is  drawn  back. 

590.  The  receiver  of  the  "valve"  closet  is  of  better 
shape  and  smaller;  but  it  holds  a  greater  volume  of 
water  and  the  valve  itself  is  less  apt  to  become  so 
foul.    The  water  is  liable  to  escape  by  leakage  around  - 
the  valve. 

591.  The  "plunger"  is  still  better,  but  the  me- 
chanical contrivance  that  supports  the  water  is  liable 
to  be  smeared  and  to  defile  the  atmosphere,  as  well 
as  to  hold  foreign  matter  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow 
the  water  to  escape  before  use. 

592.  The  "hopper"  closets,  long  and  short,  have 
no  movable  machinery,   and  are  plain  bottomless 
bowls  set  upon  a  trap  that  opens  directly  into  or  is  a 
part  of  the  soil-pipe,  the  water  entering  by  a  rim- 
flush  from  an  overhead  tank.     The  chief  objection 
to  the  hoppers  is  that  the  walls  may  be  soiled  so  that 
the  natural  flush  will  not  cleanse  them. 

593.  The  short  hopper  is  the  better  of  the  two  for 


SEWERS    AND    WASTE.  139 

use  within  the  house,  because  the  level  of  the  seal  is 
nearer  the  seat  and  the  trap  is  in  view.  For  out- 
houses the  long  hopper  is  preferable,  because  ex- 
posure of  the  trap  to  frost  is  less. 

594.  Very  acceptable  closets  are  the  type  known 
as   "wash  out"  and  "wash  down,"   of  which  the 
"siphon"    is   an    improved    variety.      In    the   two 
former  the  bowl  holds  a  moderate  depth  of  water 
and  a  deep  seal  lies  below.     The  contents  are  swept 
out  by  a  rim-flush,  which  should  be  sufficient  to 
force  everything  through  the  trap. 

595.  One  form  of  siphon  closet  acts  with  a  jet 
thrown  from  the  front  wall,  and  is  known  as  the 
"siphon  jet."     In  a  second,  under  the  trade  name  of 
Dececo,  the  trap  is  baked  as  part  of  the  bowl  and 
both  the  receiver  and  the  seal  contain  several  inches 
of  water.     When  started  by  the  flush  the  outflow 
is  impeded  by  a  constriction,  so  that  the  long  arm 
is  speedily  formed  and  all  the  contents  of  the  basin 
are  exhausted.     The  third,  or  Sanitas,  is  operated 
by  a  column  of  water  from  the  flushing-cistern  held 
in  position  by  atmospheric  pressure,  with  the  end  in 
the  water  of  the  receiver.     When    the   cistern   dis- 
charges, the  descending  water  escapes  through  the 
flushing-rim  and  by  way  of  the  siphon. 

596.  Each  closet  should  have  its   own  flushing- 
tank,  to  avoid  contamination  of  the  drinking  supply ; 
the  discharge  from  the  pipe  should  be  by  a  IJ-in. 
pipe  at  the  least,  to  give    adequate  head,  and  the 
flush  should  be  by  the  rim,  to  scour  the  bowl. 

597.  Water-closet   fixtures   should   be   freely   ex- 
posed for  inspection  and  never  be  boxed  in.     Pipes 
neatly  painted  should  be  open  to  the  eye,  or  at  the 


140  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

most  have  the  covers  screwed,  not  nailed,  on.  Urinals 
under  no  circumstances  should  be  allowed  in  dwell- 
ings. It  is  impossible  to  keep  them  free  from  ammo- 
niacal  odor,  and  when  insufficiently  flushed  toxic 
bacteria  may  escape. 

598.  For  public  buildings  with  closets  in  frequent 
use,  copious  automatic  flushes  arranged  to  discharge 
at  regular  intervals  are  safer  than  those  depending 
upon  individual  care  at  the  time. 

599.  For  troops  in  garrison,  latrines  should  be  in 
detached  buildings,  usually  as  troughs  with  multiple 
seats,  and  with  a  frequent  automatic  flush  that  may 
be  set  at  different  intervals  if  desired.     They  should 
be  wide  enough  to  avoid  soiling  the  rear  wall  by 
diarrhceal  discharges. 

600.  A  primitive  trough,  whose  contents  escape 
after  the  removal  by  hand  of  a  plug  at  one  end,  is 
sometimes  used  but  is  rarely  satisfactory.     It  re- 
ceives several  inches  of  water  by  opening  a  pipe 
when  the  plug  is  replaced,  or  previously. 

Traps  and  Seals. 

601.  Having  secured  a  closet  that  will  discharge 
its  contents  without  polluting  itself,  the  next  point 
is  to  prevent  the  sewer-air  always  present   in   the 
pipes  from  escaping  through  the  water-closet  into 
the  dwelling. 

602.  Emanations  from  fresh  and  healthful  faecal 
matter,  however  unpleasant,  do  not  appear  to  be 
intrinsically    mischievous    and    it    is    not    probable 
that  the  bacterial  causes  of  specific  diseases  are  thus 
disseminated   in  dwellings.      It   does   appear,  how- 
ever, that  air  charged  with  the  putrefying  products 


SEWERS    AND    WASTE.  141 

of  organic  waste  diminishes  the  power  to  resist  ill- 
ness, and  that  inmates  of  houses  thus  polluted  suc- 
cumb more  easily  than  others  to  attacks  of  specific 
disease,  if  indeed  they  do  not  become  actually  pre- 
disposed to  such  infection. 

603.  The  invasion  of  sewer-air  is   prevented  by 
the  trap  and  the  seal,  provided  that  the  seal  is  com- 
plete and  the  trap  itself  does  not  become  foul.     The 
possible  disadvantages  of  a  trap  are  the  check  it 
may  furnish  to  the  escape  of  refuse  through  it,  that 
it  is  liable  to  become  fouled  by  use,  and  that  the  seal 
may  be  lost  entirely. 

604.  The  outlet  of  the  bowl  just  above  the  trap 
should  be  a  little  larger  than  the  inlet  arm  of  the 
latter,  the  trap  itself  should  have  no  recess  to  be 
fouled,  when  properly  set  it  should  be  self-scouring, 
and  its  inner  surface  be  perfectly  smooth,  which  im- 
plies its  construction  of  earthenware  or  enamelled 
iron. 

605.  The  primitive  trap,  formerly  in  universal  use 
and  not  yet  entirely  discarded,  is  the  "D,"  which  is 
very  bad  in  that  it  always  accumulates  filth  behind 
an  interior  recess.     The  more  common  ahd  permis- 
sible traps,  in  the  order  of  merit,  are  the  "P"  or 
"i  S,"  "|  S,"  and  "S." 

606.  A  running  trap  is  a  shallow  U-like  bend  in 
a  nearly  horizontal  pipe.      It  should  not  be  deep 
enough  for  refuse  to  lodge. 

607.  All  the  water  in  any  trap  should  be  changed 
with  each  flush,  and  there  should  be  a  good  supply 
of  clean  water  left  in  the  trap.     This  point  of  use  is 
often  overlooked  in  the  kitchen  and  laundry  sinks, 
the   bath-tubs,   and   the  wash-basins,   so   that   the 


142  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

water  remaining  in  the  trap  is  apt  to  be  the  last  run- 
ning out  of  the  vessel. 

608.  Much   of    the   disagreeable   odor  sometimes 
experienced  about  lavatory  fixtures  is  due  to  the 
decomposition  of  soap  and  waste  from  the   surface 
of  the  body,  retained  in  the  outflow  arm  of  the  basin, 
because  fresh  water  has  not  been  supplied  to  sweep 
it  out. 

609.  The  pipes  from  all  the  fixtures  should  join 
the  soil-pipe,  which  is  the  one  that  receives  the  dis- 
charges and  conducts  them  from  the  house  to  the 
sewer,  by  Y's  and  not  by  T's.     When  carried  later- 
ally such  pipes  should  be  along  a  decided  grade, 
with  the  fewest  possible  changes  of  direction.    Water- 
closets  should  join  the  soil-pipe  at  an  acute  angle, 
and  over  as  short  a  route  as  possible. 

610.  A  seal  may  be  forced  by  the  sheer  momentum 
of  the  water  pouring  through  it,  it  may  evaporate, 
it  may  be  broken  by  back-pressure  or  by  siphonage, 

611.  Serious   evaporation   is    not    likely  to  occur 
where  a  closet  is  in  use.     But  where  a  fixture  is  not 
in  use,  as  when  the  house  or  a  part  of  it  is  closed, 
the  trap  should  be  filled  with  a  heavy  oil  or  with 
glycerine.     Leakage    by     the    capillary    action    of 
threads,  hair,   etc.,  caught  in  the  trap,  sometimes 
carries  off  the  seal. 

612.  Back-pressure  is  the  consequence  of  a  heavy 
column  of  water  descending   the  main  soil-pipe  to 
near  its  end,  where  there  is  an  abrupt  bend  or  some 
other  obstacle  to  the  escape  of  the  air  in  front  of  it 
This  air  being  compressed,  moves  in  the  direction  of 
the  least  resistance  up  the  nearest  branch  pipe  and 
through    the   seal.     To   produce   back-pressure    the 


SEWERS    AND    WASTE.  143 

descending  column  must  have  acquired  considerable 
velocity,  and  there  must  be  an  impediment  to  the 
escape  of  the  air  before  it.  The  fixture  whose  trap 
is  forced  will  therefore  be  near  the  bottom  of  the 
stack. 

613.  Siphonage  is  the  effect  of  a  heavy  column  of 
water  falling  suddenly  down  a  soil-pipe  and  thus 
producing  a    partial  Vacuum,  by  which  the_  equi- 
librium of  the  seal  is  destroyed  and  it  is  broken  by 
atmospheric  pressure  from  within  the  closet.     It  is 
most  apt  to  occur  to  the  highest  seal  in  a  tall  stack. 

614.  Back-pressure    and    siphonage    are    comple- 
mental,  and  both  cannot  occur  to  the  same  fixture. 

615.  A  vent  is  a  pipe  in  the  upper  bend  of  the 
trap  connecting  with  either  the  soil-pipe  or  a  general 
vent-pipe,  to  admit  air  and  so  prevent  siphonage. 
It  wifl  also  counteract  back-pressure.     It  is  chiefly 
required  in  large  houses  or  those   with   complicated 
systems  of  plumbing.     Its  best  location  is  on  the 
soil-pipe  just  beyond  the  crown  of  the  trap.     If  it 
joins  a  general  vent-pipe,  it  should  be  at  a  point 
higher  than  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  fixture. 
The  vent  should  be  the  full  size  of  the  trap,  at  least 
up  to  two  inches.     Venting  waste-pipes  and  venti- 
lating soil-pipes  are  distinct. 

616.  The  objections  to  vents  are  their  liability  to 
become  clogged  by  undissolved  matters   splashing 
against  the  opening  in  the  trap,  and  their  tendency 
to  evaporate  the  seal. 

617.  A  trap-vent  that  preserves  the  equilibrium  by 
introducing  fresh  air  from  the  interior  of  the  dwell- 
ing, and  uses  mercury  to  prevent  the  backward  flow, 
is  widely  used  and  appears  to  be  satisfactory. 


144  NOTES   ON  MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

618.  There  are  other  difficulties  to  be  met  with  in 
plumbing;  and  it  is  not  sufficient  for  a  quartermaster 
to  assume  that  because  a  contract  has  been  made  to 
introduce  fixtures  that  that  is  all  that  is  necessary ; 
nor   for  a  commanding  officer    to  suppose  that  if, 
when  plumbing  is  complained  of,  no  broken  pipe  nor 
leaking  joint  can  be  found,  nothing  is  amiss. 

The  Soil-pipe. 

619.  The  soil-pipe  should  be  of  iron  within  the 
house  and  of  earthenware  (tile)  outside  of  it.     Leaden 
pipes,  formerly  used,  are  liable  to  corrosion  and  to 
be  gnawed  by  rats.     Outside  of  the  house  it  is  some- 
times called  the  branch  sewer-pipe,  and  sometimes, 
but  improperly,  the  house-drain.     Where  it  passes 
out  of  the  house  it  should  be  protected  by  an  arch 
in  the  wall. 

620.  It  should  have  a   calibre  not  to  exceed  4 
inches  for  large  public  buildings,  while  from  3  to  3^ 
inches    is    ample   for   ordinary    private   houses.     It 
must   extend  full-bore  above  the  roof   and  in  cold 
climates  be  somewhat  larger  at  the  exit,  on  account 
of  accumulating  frost,  and  the  end  should  not  be 
curved  nor  be  covered  by  a  cowl. 

621.  The   soil-pipe    should  have  few  changes   of 
direction  and  those  over  as  large  curves  &s  possible, 
and  should  never  be  carried  horizontally  nor  under 
buildings  if  it  can  be  avoided.     The  part  above  the 
upper  closet  must  be  of  the  same  material  and  con- 
struction as   the  remainder,  to  prevent  leaking  of 


622.  The  part  above  the  roof  should  terminate 
below  the  level  of  the  chimney-top,  and  not  be  near 


SEWERS    AND    WASTE.  145 

a  window  into  which  the  gases  from  it  may  drift. 
Neither  the  soil-pipe  nor  the  vent-pipe  should  be 
allowed  to  terminate  within  a  chimney,  as  is  some- 
times done,  because  the  fires  are  not  perpetual  and 
down  drafts  frequently  occur.  Such  pipes  also  are 
liable  to  be  choked  with  soot. 

623.  In  large  houses  the  vent-pipes  are  sometimes 
run  together  upward  in  a  single  pipe.     In  smaller 
houses  they  may  enter  the  soil-pipe  above  the  highest 
fixture.     That  is  usually  quite  sufficient. 

624.  The  entire  soil-pipe  should  be  tested  for  leaks 
by  water  pressure   when   set   up.     Afterward   sus- 
pected  leaks   are   searched   for   by   peppermint   or 
smoke. 

Disconnection. 

625.  A  sewer  is  "disconnected"  when  there  is  a 
large  vent,  either  with  or  without  a  running-trap, 
outside  of  the  house,  allowing  the  free  ingress  of 
fresh  air  or  the  exit  of  foul  air,  as  the  pressure  may 
determine.     The    "disconnection"    is    conventional 
rather  than  actual,  and  it  is  difficult  to  carry  out  in 
snowy  or  very  cold  climates. 

626.  The    running-trap    may    be    dispensed  .with 
when  the  sewer  into  which  the  soil-pipe  discharges 
is  fairly  kept,  or  if  it  is  liable  to  be  frozen,  or  if  the 
grade  is  not  good.     It  is  chiefly  required  in  houses 
not   connected   with   a  good   sewer  system.     When 
this  trap  is  used,  there  must  be  a  vent  between  it  and 
the  house. 

Ventilation  of  Sewers. 

627.  The  third  and  very  important  method  of  pre- 
venting house  infection  from  sewers  is  by  ventilation, 


146  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

which  means  the  free  passage  of  air  through  the 
soil-pipe,  thus  relieving  the  seal  of  undue  pressure. 
This  is  accomplished  by  extending  the  soil-pipe  full 
calibre  above  the  highest  closet  and  through  the 
roof  into  the  open  air,  with  the  top  free  and  with  no 
obstacle  from  end  to  end  except,  possibly,  the  run- 
ning-trap. 

628.  But  as  ventilation  requires  an  inlet  as  well  as 
an  outlet,  there  should  be  a  disconnecting  vent  of 
full  size  in  the  pipe  line  between  the  house  and  the 
sewer.     Generally  speaking,  sewer-air  will  not  escape 
by  this  vent,  but  will  rise  in  the  heated  soil-pipe 
within    the   house;    nevertheless,    windows   or   air- 
ducts    into    the    house    should    not    be    near    the 
vent. 

629.  Rain  leaders  sometimes  conduct  storm-water 
from  the  roofs  into  the  sewers.     They  will  ventilate 
upward  as  well  as  carry  water  down,  and  therefore 
those  near  windows  should  not  be  thus  used.     Under 
no  circumstances  should  they  discharge  on  the  sewer 
side  of  the  trap  or  of  the  vent,  and  there  always 
should  be  a  vent. 

630.  It  occasionally  happens  that,  impressed  with 
the  desirability  of   removing   sewage   from  habita- 
tions,   post    authorities    have    used    wooden    drains 
through  which  to  discharge  such  excreta.     It  is  only 
a  short  time  before  such  conduits  become  clogged 
and   saturated    with   their   contents,   and   are   thus 
transformed  into  long  permanent  cesspools.     If  used 
at  all,  they  must  be  set  so  that  one  angle  forms  the 
lowest  line. 


SEWERS   AND   WASTE.  147 

Privies,  etc. 

631.  But  water-carriage  of  excreta  is  the  excep- 
tion in  the  army;   nevertheless  excreta  and  garbage 
generally  must  be  disposed  of,  and  that  promptly. 
At  posts  after  a  well-ordered  sewer  system  come,  in 
order  of  desirability,  (1)  closets  over  the  water,  as 
may  be    arranged  on    the  seacoast;    (2)   cesspools; 
(3)  privies;    (4)  the  dry-earth  system,  and,    chiefly 
for  the  future,  the  furnace  for  the  disposal  of  gar- 
bage. 

632.  A  cesspool  is  a  cistern,  generally  walled  dry, 
with  a  floor  of  earth.     Into  this  the  house  waste  is 
conducted  by  pipes,  and  from  it  the  liquid  matters 
drain  and  the  solids  are  removed  as  required.     For 
its  proper  use  the  soil  must  be  porous,  the  ground- 
water  low,  and  the  water-supply  be  beyond  reach 
of  contamination. 

633.  A  deep  dry- walled  privy,  covered  and  when 
full  abandoned,  is  a  variety  common  at  some  posts. 
These  should  be,  but  rarely  are,  permanently  marked 
to  warn  future  garrisons. 

634.  The  worst  privies  are  the  common  shallow 
pits    dug    for    temporary    relief,   generally   without 
authority,  near  stables,   corrals,  and  married  men's 
quarters.     These   are   often  filled   to  repletion,  in- 
sufficiently covered   and   unmarked,  honeycombing 
an  old  post.     They  should  only  be  dug  by  authority 
specifically  designating  place  and  depth,  be  filled  in 
according  to  rule  when  no  longer  to  be  used,  and 
marked  in  place  and  on  the  post  map.     Such  care 
is  especially  important  when  the  water  is  drawn  from 
wells  or  superficial  reservoirs. 

635.  The  dry-earth  system  depends  for  its  efficacy 


148  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

on  the  deodorizing  power  of  really  dry  earth  or 
ashes  covering  the  discharges  at  once.  This  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  carry  out  systematically  and 
well,  especially  under  the  conditions  of  garrison  life. 

636.  Sometimes  the  discharges  are  transported  in 
movable  drawers  at  daily  intervals  to  another  place 
of  deposit,  but  always  with  considerable  risk  of  dis- 
tributing part  of  their  contents. 

637.  All  human  excreta  should  be  carefully  dis- 
posed of  by  burial  or  by  fire.     It  is  not  sufficient 
that  they  are  out  of  sight.     The  disinfection  and 
disposition  of  hospital  refuse  is  a  distinct  subject, 
for  the  Medical  Department  to  carry  out. 

Kitchen  Slops. 

638.  Kitchen  and  laundry  slops  are  liable  to  be 
hurtful,  because  they  contain  in  solution  and  suspen- 
sion animal  and  vegetable  debris,  which  certainly 
undergo  decomposition  and  are  liable  to  be  charged 
with  emanations  from  the  body  in  disease  as  well  as 
in  health.     The  ground  on  which  slops  are  habitually 
thrown  is  often  indescribably  foul  by  soakage,  and 
yet  few  people  suspect  such  waste  to  be  harmful. 

639.  All  waste  going  out  of  a   house,   not  into 
sewers,   should  be  received  in  water-tight   barrels, 
which  should  rest  on  platforms  that  are  movable, 
or  so  arranged  that  the  ground  under  them  can  be 
cleaned. 

640.  The  ultimate   destruction  of  all  garbage  is 
best  accomplished  by  fire.     Garbage  furnaces  that 
effectually  destroy  all  refuse  without  odor  and  at 
moderate  cost  are  now  in  use  in  many  cities  and  at 
some  posts. 


SEWERS    AND    WASTE.  149 

641.  Pending   that,  and  in   the  absence  of  deep 
water,  refuse  should  be  carefully  separated  into  the 
destructible  (organic  debris),  like  slops,  old  clothes, 
decaying  vegetables,  and  the  indestructible,  as  tin 
cans,  pottery,  etc.     The  former  should  be  buried  in 
deep  and  remote  trenches  when  the  weather  permits, 
and  the  latter  be  cast  away  by  itself. 

642.  When  water  is  introduced  into  a  post  by  a 
pipe  system,  pains  must  be  taken  at  the  same  time  to 
have  it  systematically  carried  away;    otherwise  the 
surplus  water  will  saturate  the  ground,  often  already 
full  of  organic  waste,  and  under  heat  disease  will 
arise.     This  oversight  occasionally  occurs. 


VII. 

WATER. 

Sources . 

643.  Water,  which  is  more  immediately  necessary 
to  life  than  is  food,  has  its  ultimate  general  source 
in  the  clouds,  which  are  replenished  by  evaporation. 
But  most  drinking-water  is  directly  derived  from 
streams    (including  ponds),  springs,  or  wells.     The 
rain    which    soaks   directly  into  the  ground,  either 
at  hand  or  afar,  and  is  held  by  an  impenetrable 
stratum,  constitutes  subsoil  water. 

644.  But   a  deep  water-supply  is  almost   every- 
where to  be  found  below  the  subsoil  or  ground-water. 
This  is  derived  from  rain-water  following  the  lines  of 
upturned  strata  directly  through  impervious  layers, 
until  it  is  held  at  a  great  depth  either  in  local  reser- 
voirs or  in  immense  beds  whose  origin  may  be  far 
distant. 

645.  Water  that  appears  on  the  surface  in  limited 
quantities   is    called  a    spring.     This    may  have   a 
strictly  local  origin  and  temporary  life,  being  de- 
rived from  a  rainfall  upon  a  neighboring  hill;   or  it 
may  be  a  permanent  flow,  the  manifestation  of  a 
deep-seated  supply  from  a  very  distant  source. 

150 


WATER.  151 

Cisterns. 

646.  Rain-water,  collected  from  a  clean  surface, 
after  the  atmosphere  has  been  well  washed,  is  the 
purest  in  nature;  but  its  storage  is  so  difficult  as  to 
degrade  cistern-water  from  the  first  rank. 

647.  In  collecting  cistern-water,  unless  the  surface 
is  very  clean,  the  first  rainfall  should  run  to  waste  or 
be  very  carefully  filtered,  for  the  washings  of  roofs 
introduce    a    rapidly-decomposing    sediment.     Dust 
should  be  washed  out  of  the  air  charged  with  it, 
before  the  rainfall  is  secured. 

648.  Cisterns    rapidly    deteriorate,    and   when   of 
wood  the  fluctuating  water-line  fosters  decay.     But 
clean  gravel  will  introduce  into  wooden  cisterns  the 
bacteria  of  nitrification,  which  are  purifying  agents. 
Underground  cisterns,  usually  of  cement-lined  brick, 
are  liable  to  leakage  into  them  through  cracks  or 
from  the  surface.     Overflow-pipes  of  cisterns  should 
not  connect  with  sewers  lest  foul  air  come  over  and 
be  absorbed. 

649.  The  quantity  of  water  that  may  be  collected 
from  a  non-absorbent  surface  is  determined  by  mul- 
tiplying the  area  by  the  rainfall.     Thus:    Reduce 
square  feet  to  inches  (X144),  and  multiply  this  by 
inches  of  rain,  which  will  equal  cubic  inches  of  rain. 
Divide  this  by  1728  for  cubic  feet,  or  by  277.274  for 
gallons.     The  area  of  roofs  is  that  of  the  horizontal 
plane  covered,  not  of  the  slopes. 

Springs  and  Wells. 

650.  Springs  whose  origin  is  remote  from  habita- 
tions, large  lakes,  and  streams  flowing  through  unin- 


152  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

habited  regions  furnish  the  best  sources  of  water- 
supply,  except  rain-water  from  a  perfectly  clean  sur- 
face in  a  protected  reservoir. 

651.  Wells  may  obtain   their  water  from  either 
the  ground-water  or  the  deep  supply,  and  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  determine  from  which  without 
a  fair  knowledge  of  the  local  geology. 

652.  The  arbitrary  rule,  to  which  there  are  many 
exceptions,  is :  Wells  less  than  50  feet  deep  are  shal- 
low, from  subsoil  water;    more  than  50  feet  deep, 
from  deep  water-bearing  levels. 

653.  Neither  does  the  depth  of  the  well  determine 
off-hand  the  source  of  the  water.    For  example:  Lon- 
don and  Paris  both  lie  over  impervious  basins  into 
which  water  drains  from  great  distances,  and  can  be 
reached  by  the  artesian  method.     But  New  York  is 
underlaid    by  rocks    lying  nearly  perpendicular  to 
the  horizon,  so  that  its  subjacent  water  is  practically 
surface  water  that  has  soaked  directly  downward. 

654.  If  the  surface  is  not  polluted,  water  in  shallow 
wells  is  as  good  as  that  in  deep  wells.     But  where  the 
soil  is  contaminated  it  is  only  a  question  of  time 
when   the   well,   whatever  its   depth,   whose  water 
passes  through  it,  becomes  equally  foul  with  a  shal- 
low  one.     The   longer  and   the   more   densely   the 
neighborhood  has  been  inhabited,  the  greater  the 
risk.      Ordinary  well-water   in  an  inhabited  region 
is   doubtful,   and   houses   standing   100   feet   apart 
should  condemn  all  intervening  wells. 

655.  The  rule  is  general  that  wells  drain  inverted 
cones  whose  radius  equals  their  depth.     In  sand  the 
area  is  much  greater;  and  any  well  may  receive  a  sup- 
ply, pure  or  impure,  through  a  fault. 


WATER.  153 

656.  The  most  of  the  water  in  a  well  on  the  bank 
of  a  river  does  not  come  from  the  river,  but  from  the 
intercepted  subsoil  water  making  its  way  toward  the 
stream.     Speaking  generally,  the  silt  lining  the  river- 
bed makes  a  coating  impervious  to  the  outward  flow 
of  water. 

657.  Wells    should    collect    ground-water    going 
toward,  not  coming  from,  a  polluted  site;    and  no 
well,  even  in  search  of  deep  water,  should  pierce  a 
polluted  basin,  because  the  shaft  is  liable  to  conduct 
water  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  level. 

658.  When  necessary,  water  can  usually  be  found 
in  the  dry  bed  of  a  "sunk"  river;  or  good  water  may 
be  obtained  by  piercing  the  bed  of  a  polluted  stream 
and  pumping  through  a  water-tight  casing  from  the 
parallel  subfluvial  flow. 

659.  Water  found  by  the  sea  is  usually  brackish, 
but  if  a  large  underground  volume  of  fresh  water 
flows  from  higher  ground  it  may  hold  back  the  salt 
water,  so   that  wells  very  near  the  shore  may  be 
fresh.     When  brackish  water  is  found,  if  wells  are 
sunk  inland  in  succession  the  influence  of  the  salt 
may  finally  be  avoided.     (Parkes.) 

660.  In  searching  for  water,  Parkes  advises  that, 
on  a  plain,   depressions  in   the  surface  should  be 
tested ;  that  even  on  a  sandy  plain  morning  mists  or 
swarms  of  insects  indicate  water  comparatively  near 
the  surface,  and  that  where  there  is  most  herbage 
water  is  more  likely  to  be  found.     (See  par.  391.) 
He  also  advises  among  hills  to  sink  wells  at  the  low- 
est point,  not  on  a  spur;  at  the  junction  of  valleys; 
and  always  on  the  side  of  a  valley  next  to  the  higher 
ground. 


154  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

Solution  and  Suspension. 

661.  Outside  of  the  laboratory  there  is  no  per- 
fectly pure  water,  as  by  its  very  great  solvent  power 
it  takes  up  portions  of  innumerable  substances  that 
come  in  contact  with  it;    besides  which  it  holds  in 
suspension   many   undissolved   foreign   bodies   acci- 
dentally introduced. 

662.  Water  may  contain  mineral  matter  in  solu- 
tion, mineral  and  organic  matters  in  suspension,  and 
organic  matter  in  solution  of  varying  qualities,  some 
harmless    and    some    accompanied    by,    if   not    dis- 
tinctly made  up  of,  specific  disease-causes. 

663.  Substances  in  solution  completely  disappear 
and  cannot  be  filtered  out;   e.g.,  salt  or  sugar.     In 
suspension  the  particles  do  not  entirely  disappear, 
and  their  presence  is  shown  by  turbidity  or  opacity. 
Nevertheless,  water   may   be    colored   and  at  least 
translucent;    e.g.,   solution   of  sulphate  of  copper, 
cypress-swamp  water. 

664.  Dissolved  matter  can  only  be  removed  by 
chemical  action,  or  by  reducing  through  evaporation 
(distillation)  the  proportion  of  water  so  that  a  part 
of  the  contained  solid  is  precipitated. 

665.  The  alkaline  waters  of  the  plains  carry  great 
quantities  of  soda,  potash,  or  magnesia,  and  are  con- 
spicuous examples  on  a  large  scale  of  watery  solu- 
tions.    As  far  as  known,  they  may  only  be  purified 
by  distillation.     They  are  more  disagreeable  in  the 
rainy  season,  because  the  alkali  left  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil  by  evaporation  in  the  dry  weather  is  then 
washed  into  the  wells. 


WATER.  155 

Hard  Water. 

666.  Water  is  arbitrarily  regarded  as  hard  or  soft, 
as  it  contains  more  or  less  than  ten  grains  of  mineral 
matter  to  the  gallon.     Practically  that  "  which  flows 
through  calcareous  channels  is  hard,  and  that  which 
flows  through  silicious  rocks  is  soft." 

667.  The  hardness  of  water  is  caused  by  the  pres- 
ence of  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  baryta,  alumina,  or  cer- 
tain other  minerals.     It  renders  cooking  of  certain 
vegetables  very  difficult  and  compels  the  use  of  a 
great   deal   of   extra   soap   to   neutralize   it  before 
washing   can   be  done.      It  is   thus   of  economical 
importance. 

668.  Hard  water  is  generally  bright  and  sparkling. 
Persons  accustomed  to  drinking  soft  water  generally 
have  some  intestinal    trouble    after  drinking    hard 
water,  and  the  reverse  is  true.     But  other  sanitary 
conditions  being  equal,  mortality  is  not  influenced 
by  the  hardness  or  softness  of  the  water-supply. 

669.  In  practice  hardness  is   recognized   by   the 
curdling  that  follows  when  there  is  an  attempt  to 
dissolve   soap   in   the   water.      Soaps    are   alkaline 
oleates  which  quickly  form  a  lather  when  mixed  with 
pure  water.    But  if  the  substances  that  give  hardness 
to  the  water  are  present,  oleates  of  those  bases  are 
formed  and  no  lather  is  given  until  the  bases  are 
thrown  down. 

670.  Resting  upon  the  foregoing  is  the  soap  test 
for  hardness,  where  a  standard  solution  of  soap  is 
used  to  neutralize  these  bases,  and  the  degrees  are 
established  according  to  a  certain  scale. 


156  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

To  Remove  the  Hardness  of  Water. 

671.  The  hardness  of  water  is  divided  into  tem- 
porary and  permanent  or  fixed,  the  sum  of  the  two 
constituting  the  total  hardness.     Much  of  this  de- 
pends upon  the  bicarbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia  in 
solution  and  on  the  presence  of  free  C02. 

672.  Now,  in  boiling  water  for  half  an  hour  the 
heat  dissipates  the  CO2  and  transforms  the  bicar- 
bonates into  simple  carbonates,  which  being  insolu- 
ble  are   precipitated.     This    leaves    certain   soluble 
lime  and  magnesia  compounds   (usually  sulphates) 
which  cannot  be  extracted.     The  temporary  hardness 
has     been   removed   and    the   permanent   hardness 
remains. 

673.  Or,  in  a  small  way,  add  carbonate  of  soda 
(washing-soda).     The  reaction  leads  to  bicarbonate 
of  soda  and  carbonate  of  lime.     The  soda  bicarbo- 
nate is  soluble,  but  the  insoluble  lime  carbonate  is 
precipitated.     This  is  the  domestic  practice  in  the 
laundry. 

674.  Or,   the    third   and    best  method,  known  as 
Clark's  process,  which  depends  on  the  addition  of 
lime.     This  is  applied  on  a  large  scale,  the  quantity 
of  lime  being  determined  by  the  soap  test.    The  lime 
subtracts  a  certain  amount  of  CO2  from  the  soluble 
bicarbonate  of  lime,  converting  it  into  an  insoluble 
carbonate,  which,  with  the  carbonate  originally  pres- 
ent, falls  to  the  bottom. 

675.  When  there  are  20-30  parts  bicarbonate  of 
lime  per  100,000,  about  9  oz.  quicklime  is  used  to 
every  400  gals,  of  water,  or  1  gal.  clear  lime-water 
to  every  10  gals,  of  water.     Used  on  a  large  scale, 


WATER.  157 


as  in  certain  British  cities  whose  water  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  it,  besides  improving  the  quality  of  the 
water  for  the  table,  a  great  economic  saving  is 
made  in  the  consumption  of  soap. 


SUSPENDED   MATTERS   AND   THEIR  REMOVAL. 

Sedimentation. 

676.  Water  may  contain  in  suspension  as  well  as  in 
solution  both  organic  and  mineral  matter,  and  it  is 
against  this  suspended  matter,  which  is  offensive  to 
the  eye,  that  the  most  of  the  processes  of  clarification 
and  filtration  are  directed. 

677.  Muddy  water  usually  contains  insoluble  par- 
ticles of  slightly  greater  specific  gravity  than  the 
water  itself,  and  when  allowed  to  rest  sedimentation 
will  free  it  from  most  of  the  foreign  matters,  and, 
speaking  generally,   the    remainder  call  usually  be 
removed  by  straining.     Settling-basins   on   a    large 
scale  are  therefore  important  adjuncts  to  reservoirs. 

678.  But,    excepting    diarrhoea    from   mechanical 
irritation,   mud,   although   unsightly,   rarely   causes 
disease.     This    diarrhoea,    however,    sometimes    is 
grave  and  persistent.     Settling,  by  rest,  on  a  small 
scale  is  often  efficacious  for  domestic  use,  so  that 
water  as  muddy  as  the  Missouri  will  become  per- 
fectly clear  if  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  for 
twenty-four  hours  in  a  convenient  vessel.     The  sus- 
pended alluvium  falls  to  the  bottom  and  the  super- 
natant liquid  can  be  poured  off. 

679.  Suspended    matters    are    also    removed    by 
precipitation  and  filtration. 


158  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

Precipitation. 

680.  Precipitation  is  sedimentation  either  by  rest 
(as  just  described),  or  through  clarification,  which,  by 
inducing  harmless  chemical  changes,  leads  to  it. 

681.  The  most  convenient  agent  for  precipitation, 
especially  if  the  water  is  slightly   hard,   is  alum. 
Add  about  6  grains  of  crystallized  alum  to  the  gal- 
lon or  move  about    in  the  water  a  lump  of  alum 
held  in  the  hand.     Some  years  ago,  one  wing  of  a 
British  regiment  passing  up  the  Indus  drank  the 
water   without   preparation   and   suffered   severely 
from  a  diarrhoea  of  irritation.     The  other  wing  used 
alum  and  had  no  diarrhoea.     The  first  then  adopted 
it  and  the  diarrhoea  ceased. 

682.  Should  the  water  be  very  soft,  first  introduce 
a    little    calcium    chloride    and    sodium    carbonate. 
The  rationale  is  the  formation  of  calcium  sulphate 
from  calcium  carbonate,  which,  together  with  the 
bulky  aluminum  hydrate,  entangles   the  suspended 
particles  and  sinks  with  them. 

683.  Other  methods  are:    The  use  of  perchloride 
of  iron,  1  oz.  to  250  gals.,  following  it  by  2|  oz.  car- 
bonate of  soda  to  neutralize  the  acidity  and  remove 
the  excess  of  iron. 

684.  Cactus-leaves  cut  up  have  a  clarifying  effect. 

Other  Methods  of  Purification. 

685.  Citric  acid,  1  oz.  to  16  gals.,  improves  water 
by  its  action  on  contained  minute  vegetable  growths 
(algae) .     Tannin  in  small  quantities  does  the  same; 
but  when  tannin   is   used  the  water   should   stand 


WATER.  159 

some  hours.  Growing  vegetation,  although  the  water 
may  be  colored  green  thereby,  is  usually  of  advan- 
tage; but  dead  vegetation  may  do  harm. 

686.  A  solution   of   permanganate   of   potassium 
(Condy's  fluid),  a  teaspoonful  at  a  time  added  to 
3  or  4  gallons  of  water  until  a  slight  permanent  pink 
color  is  obtained,  followed  by  6  grains  crystallized 
alum  to  the  gallon,  removes  the  disagreeable  odor  of 
impure  water  in  casks. 

687.  The  action  of  the  permanganate  is  that  of  an 
oxidizer.     After  having  lost  much  of  its  reputation, 
it  has  again  come  into  favor  in  India  as  a  preventive 
of  cholera.     Enough  (an  ounce  or  more)  should  be 
dissolved   in  a  well  to    insure  a    reddish  tinge  for 
twenty-four    hours.     In    excess    it    kills    contained 
animal  life  and  thus  spoils  the  water.     (Harrington, 
after  Hankin,  Ind.  Med.  Gaz.,  July,  1896.) 

688.  Schumburg    (Deut.   med.    Woch.,    4th    Mar., 
1897),   according    to    Harrington,    claims    that   all 
pathogenic   bacteria    in    water   are    killed    in   five 
minutes  by  1  cc.  of  a  20  per  cent,  solution  of  bromine 
and  potassic  bromide,  each,  to  5  litres  ordinary  river- 
water.     In    very    hard    or    grossly    polluted    water 
more  of  the  solution  should  be  added  gradually  until 
a  yellow  tinge,  that  will  persist  half  a  minute,  occurs. 
Under  any  circumstances,  a  volume  of  9  per  cent, 
ammonia  solution  equal  to  that  of  the  bromine  solu- 
tion must  be  added. 

689.  The  bromine  method,  which  appears  to  be 
trustworthy,  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  military 
service  either  for  small  parties  or  for  large  com- 
mands.    A  kilogram  (2.2  Ibs.)  of  bromine  will  ster- 
ilize 16,000  litres  (3500  gals.)  of  common  water. 


160  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

690.  Where  circumstances  permit,  as  on   steam- 
ships, at  posts,  and  in  some  camps,  distillation  will 
sterilize  the  drinking-water.      But  if  the  source  of 
supply  is  very  impure,   certain  impurities   may  be 
carried  over  with  the  steam,  and  these  may  induce 
diarrhoeas. 

691.  Thorough   boiling,    which   is   nearly   always 
practicable,    even    in    active    campaign,    efficiently 
destroys  the  bacterial  causes  of  disease,  and  should 
be  employed  for  all  drinking-water  when  there  is 
any  doubt  of  its  purity. 

Filtration. 

692.  Filtration  is  directed  against  suspended  mat- 
ters, dissolved  organic  matter,  and  bacterial  organ- 
isms. 

693.  Filters  have  three  modes  of  action: 

(1)  By  mechanically  arresting  suspended  matter 
too  large  to  pass  through  their  pores;  that  is,  by 
straining.  (2)  By  the  attraction  of  masses,  as  when 
water  passing  very  slowly  through  a  filter  makes 
deposits  in  the  interstices.  (3)  By  the  removal  of 
substances  actually  dissolved  in  the  water. 

694.  On  a  large  scale  a  sand-filter  consists  of  fine 
sand  superimposed  upon  coarse  sand,  which  rests 
upon  fine  gravel,  and  that  in  turn  on  coarse  gravel. 
When   properly  constructed   and   managed,  this   is 
very  efficient  in  almost   completely  removing  the 
bacterial  and  other  organic  causes  of  disease.     But 
these  filters  are  so  costly  in  their  construction  and 
care  as  to  make  them  available  only  for  large  com- 
munities. 


WATER.  161 

695.  Such  a  filter  restrains  gross  impurities  me- 
chanically,  but  its  most  valuable  function  is   the 
nitrification  of  organic  matter  and  the  destruction 
of  microbes.     This  is  effected  in  a  gelatinous  layer 
that  forms  in  the  upper  part  of  the  filter,  the  living 
matter  of  which  is  the  efficient  agent.     As  the  free 
surfaces  of  the  particles  of  sand  are  out  of  all  appar- 
ent proportion  to  the  cubical  bulk  of  the  mass,  there 
is  a  very  large  area  upon  which  the  so-called  "  bac- 
terial jelly"  is  formed.     Such  a  filter  becomes  clogged 
or  "dead"  at  irregular  intervals,  when  it  requires 
renovation  by  scraping  and  washing  the  removed 
sand. 

696.  When    cistern-water  must  be  filtered  for  a 
house  supply,  it  should  pass  over  a  chamber  that 
would  retain  the  coarse  sediment  and  then  be  con- 
ducted under  a  layer  of  coarse  gravel  that  supports 
one  of  sand,  through  which  it  percolates  upward. 
The   sand  must   be   renewed   every   three   or   four 
months. 

697.  A  simpler  tank  filter  is  where  the  filtering 
material  is  raised  a  few  inches  from  the  bottom,  leav- 
ing a  settling-basin  from  which  the  water    passes 
upward. 

698.  It  is  a  fundamental  principle  that  every  fil- 
ter, whether  fixed  or  movable,  should  be  accessible 
in  all  its  parts,  for  none  is  automatic  in  its  renovating 
power. 

699.  Portable  filters  are  usually  designed  to  re- 
strain the  impurities  mechanically. 

700.  Animal  charcoal  (bone-black),  formerly  sup- 
posed very  efficient,  is  really  objectionable  in  that  it 
yields  phosphates  and  N,  which  favor  the  growth  of 


162  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

bacteria  in  water.  It  oxidizes  putrefactive  organic 
matter,  but  permits  active  organic  matter  to  pass 
through  unchanged.  In  other  words,  it  does  not 
sterilize  the  water  but  is  liable  to  make  it  more  hurt- 
ful. Thus  after  a  month's  use  the  filtrate  contained 
five  times  as  many  germs  as  the  unfiltered  water. 

701.  Vegetable  charcoal,  or  coke,  makes  an  effi- 
cient filter  against  micro-organisms  (P.  Frankland), 
but  should  be  frequently  renewed. 

702.  Spongy  iron  arrests  suspended  matter  and 
oxidizes  organic  matter.     It  appears  to  deteriorate 
very  slowly,  and  therefore  to  require  renewal.    Frank- 
land  says  after  one  month's  action  it  detains  99.8 
per  cent,  of  micro-organisms.     Notter  and  Firth  say 
it  permits  the  free  passage  of  bacteria. 

703.  Sponge,  sometimes  used  in  individual  filters, 
acts  only  mechanically,  and  is  objectionable  as  being 
itself  organic,  and  very  soon  becomes  foul.     Cotton 
and  wool,  whether  woven  or  in  their  natural  state, 
are  bad  for  the  same  reason. 

704.  Asbestos,   if   arranged   so   that  it   may   be 
treated  with  fire  and  replaced,  is  much  better  mate- 
rial for  an  individual  filter. 

705.  The    best  filter  hitherto  devised  for  domes- 
tic use  is  unglazed  porcelain,  through  which  the  water 
passes  under  moderate  pressure.     This  acts  mechan- 
ically but  efficiently,  entirely  sterilizing  the  water. 
The    most   efficient  form  is  the  Chamberland-Pas- 
teur.     As  the  bacteria  will  ultimately  grow  through 
the  kaolin,  the  "candle"  (bougie)  must  be  removed 
weekly,  and  be  carefully  brushed  and  boiled,  or  be 
well  heated  in  a  flame.     It  is  absolutely  efficient 
under  those  conditions. 


WATER.  163 

706.  The  Berkefeld  filter  is  of  the  same  general 
type  as  the  Chamberland,  with  tubes  assembled  in  a 
battery.      Turbid    water    should   first   be    clarified, 
as  it  soon  coats  the  outside  of  the  cylinders  and 
reduces    the   yield.      Under  40  pounds  pressure  15 
cylinders   will   yield   1\   gals.,  and   3  cylinders   \\' 
gals.,  a  minute.     Constant  attention  is  needed  both 
to  boil  and  to  scour  the  tubes,  and  as   these  .are 
fragile,  the  filter's  utility  depends  very  much  upon 
the  care  with  which  it  is  operated.     Under  normal 
conditions  it  is  excellent ;  with  careless  men  ft  soon 
deteriorates. 

707.  The  official  sterilizer  supplied  the  army  is 
the  Forbes- Waterhouse,  whose  efficiency  depends  on 
the  action  of  heat  and  its  economy   of  operation 
upon  its  conservation  of  that  force.     It  is  believed 
that  it  destroys  all  living  organisms. 

708.  A  good  field  filter  is  a  cask  charred  on  the 
inside    (that     may    occasionally    be    brushed)    and 
pierced  with  very  small  holes  through  the  bottom. 
This  is  sunk  in  the  water,  which  will  rise  through 
the  holes.     Better  is  one  barrel  within  another,  the 
outer  pierced  through  the  bottom  and  the  inner  near 
the  top,  the  intervening  space  being  filled  with  sand, 
gravel,  or  similar  material,  and  the  whole  sunk  suf- 
ficiently in  the  stream. 

Water  as  a  Disease-bearer. 

709.  Several  grave  diseases  are  intimately  associ- 
ated with  water  as  a  cause-bearer,  if  not  as  a  cause. 
These  are  cholera,  typhoid  fever,  and  a  variety  of 
dysentery,  which  are  spread  by  discharges  from  in- 


164  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

fected  persons  that,  as  a  rule,  gain  access  to  the  new 
victims  with  food  and  drink.  Their  most  common 
mode  of  propagation  is  through  the  contaminated 
drinking-water. 

710.  It  has  not  been  demonstrated  that  typhoid 
fever  may   originate   from   sewage   not  specifically 
poisoned;  but  it  is  certain  that  both  it  and  cholera 
are  caused  by  their  specific  excreta.    And  as  both 
typhoid   fever  and   cholera   begin   with   a   painless 
diarrhoea  whose  import  the  invalid  does  not  under- 
stand, it  is  quite  possible  for  such  discharges   to 
drain  into  any  but  the  best-kept  water-supply,  so 
that  epidemics  of  great  magnitude  sometimes  begin 
in  this  way. 

711.  A  well-authenticated  example,  among  many 
others,  is  that  where,  in  1885,  the  washing  of  the 
discharges  of  a  single  case  from  the  bank  of  a  stream, 
into  the  stream  itself  that  supplied  water  to  a  town 
of  8000  inhabitants,  was  followed  by  an  epidemic  of 
1104  cases  of  typhoid  fever,  resulting  in  114  deaths 
and  great  loss  of  time  and  labor. 

712.  Two   factories   that   employed   many  hands 
stood  side  by  side,  but  the  men  drank  from  two  dis- 
tinct wells.      One  of  these  wells  was  pure  and  the 
other  was  believed  to  be  infected.     Of  those  who 
drank  from  the  infected  well,  600  died  of  cholera, 
but  of  the  others,  none. 

713.  A  severe  and  fatal  variety  of  dysentery  has 
repeatedly  been  traced  to  impure  water;  water  not 
recognized    as    charged    with    dysenteric    products, 
but  contaminated  with  faecal  impurities.     And  wide- 
spread  diarrhoeas    have    ceased    when    the    general 
water-supply  has  been  changed  to  one  that  is  purer. 


WATER.  165 

On  the  other  hand,  water  known  to  be  specifically 
contaminated  spreads  dysentery  with  facility. 

714.  Water    that    is    contaminated    with    animal 
waste  is  not  necessarily  disagreeable;  it  is  apt  to  be 
more  sparkling  and  may   be  very  pleasant.     And 
although  no  one  would  willingly  drink  sewage,  nev- 
ertheless sewage-tainted  wells  may  not  induce  dis- 
ease.    But  the  sewage  in  them  is  at  any  time  liable 
to  have  a  specific  taint  imparted  without  changing 
their  physical  characteristics. 

715.  Such  water  is  sometimes  more  clear  and  pal- 
atable than  that  in  good  wells,  and  it  often  is  difficult 
to  persuade  those  accustomed  to  use  it  of  the  truth, 
or  to  make  them  understand  how  leakage  may  enter 
over  long  and  unsuspected  routes.     The  worst  sup- 
plies in  fact — not   in   appearance — are   the   unsus- 
pected,   for    had    they   been    suspected    their   use 
would  not  have  been  persisted  in. 

716.  As  examples  of  contamination  at  a  distance: 
A  well  nearly  free  from  iron  suddenly  began  to  yield 
chalybeate  water,  which  deposited  an  ochreous  sedi- 
ment.    It  proved  that  a  quantity  of  spoiled  beer 
having  been  emptied  into  the  ground  115  feet  from 
the  well,  its  organic  matter  acted  as  a  reducing  agent 
on  ferric  oxide  in  the  soil,  which  dissolving  as  a  pro- 
tocarbonate   entered   the   water   that   supplied   the 
well.     This  might  as  well  have  been  infected  sewage. 
Gas  from  a  main  1000  feet  away  has  been  recognized 
in  well-water.     The  typhoid  poison  has  been  con- 
veyed several  miles  by  an  underground  flow,  as  at 
Lausen  in  1872. 

717.  The  peculiar  liability  of  limestone  regions  to 
fissures    and    subterranean  caverns,  through    which 


166  NOTES   ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

water  freely  communicates  over  long  distances, 
makes  them  eminently  subject  to  the  spread  of 
cholera. 

718.  Specific  disease-causes  may  not  be  extracted 
by  filtration,  nor  respond  to  chemical  tests,  nor  be 
antagonized  by  chemical  agents,  at  least  so  that  the 
water    remains    potable.     But    there    are    chemical 
indications  by  which  sewage  may  be  suspected,  such 
as  the  presence  of  chlorides,  of  nitrates,  of  nitrites. 

719.  Should    a    suspected    well   materially    differ 
chemically  from  neighboring  wells,  it  is  probably 
infected.     In  that  case  the  chemical  condition  is  a 
sign,  not  a  cause.     Of  course  a  chain  of  wells  may 
be  similarly  affected,  in  which  case  special  investi- 
gation must  be  made. 

720.  The  simplest  way  to  determine  whether  a 
communicating  channel  exists,  is  to  introduce  into 
the  cesspool  or  other  suspected  locality  a  quantity  of 
salt  or  brine  and  later  to  observe  what  change,  if  any, 
there  is  in  the  chlorides  in  the  well.     If  they  have 
increased,   the  inference  that   the  contents   of  the 
privy  may  enter  the  well  is  obvious.     Lithia,  which 
is  not  found  in  ordinary  soils,  is  a  more  delicate  test. 

721.  When  chlorides  in  excess,  the  nitrates,  and 
the  nitrites  are  reported  they  are  to  be  looked  upon 
as  derived  from  sewage  or  similar  filth,  unless  there 
are  plain  indications  of  their  origin  from  perfectly 
innocent  sources.     By  themselves,  like  CO2  in   the 
air,  unless  in  enormous  quantities,  they  are  harmless; 
but  they  are  an  index  of  possible  mischief,  and  point 
to  typhoid  fever,  cholera,  or  sometimes  dysentery, 
in  the  water-supply,  if  consumers  of  it  have  such  a 
disease. 


WATER.  167 

722.  The   ordinary   domestic    rural   well   may   be 
poisoned  by  infection  making  its  way  through  the 
ground,  especially  along  rifts;   but  it  is  more  apt  to 
be  thus  charged,  as  Sedgwick  claims,  from  the  top. 
Loosely-covered  wells  may  be  polluted  in  numerous 
ways,  the  opportunities  multiplying  with  the  density 
of  the  population  and   the  age  of  the  settlement. 
But  until  specifically  infected,  it  will  cause  no  spe- 
cific  disease.     The  military  application  here  is   to 
remote  posts,  and  to  the  marches  and  camps  of  real 
and  mimic  war. 

723.  It  is  manifestly  unwise  to  assume  that  in- 
fected dejecta  discharged  upon  the  ground  or  buried 
in  it  will  be  neutralized  before  reaching  a  neighbor- 
ing well,  especially  as  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
that  there  is  no  rift  in  the  soil  allowing  direct  com- 
munication.    But   the   best   authorities   regard   the 
chance  of  indirect  infection  as  very  small. 

724.  Nevertheless,  Vaughan  has  discovered  organic 
matter  in  the  soil  on  nearly  level  ground  50  feet  from 
a  privy-vault,  by  comparison  with  other  soil  of  the 
same  kind  where  there  were  no  known  sources  of 
contamination;  and  such  matter  might  be  infected. 

725.  The  typhoid  cause  may  persist  in  unfiltered 
water  for  thirty  days,  but  usually  perishes  much 
sooner.     The  cholera   cause  has   a   relatively  short 
life  in  water,   except  as   reinforced  from  without. 
In  the  presence  of  saprophytes,  pathogenic  bacteria 
generally  disappear  quickly  in  contaminated  water. 
Where  a  sand-filter  is  used  these  specific  organisms 
become  entangled  in  the  "  bacterial  jelly." 

726.  Doubtless  in  most  cases  of  water  infection  the 
cause  is  a  continuing  one,  following  the  addition  of 


168  NOTES    ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

new  material,  which  should  be  sought  out  and  pre- 
vented. It  is,  however,  much  better  to  avoid  the 
original  pollution  of  water-supply  than  to  depend 
upon  removing  the  poison  once  introduced. 

727.  Independently  of  the  specific  disease-poisons 
intimately  associated  with  water-carriage,  there  are 
non-specific  impurities,  generally  held  in  suspension 
but    sometimes    in    solution.     Organic    remains    in 
water  are  always  impurities,   never  being  present 
naturally,  as  in  some  sense  the  minerals  that  are  in 
solution  might  be  regarded.     These  may  come  from 
animal  waste  or  even  from  animal  decomposition,  as 
in  the  soakage  of  graveyards,  and  from  vegetable 
decay. 

728.  But  in  view  of  the  inconceivable  amount  of 
organic   disintegration  going   on   through   all   time, 
why  is  not  all  water  a  mere  vehicle  to  carry  this 
waste?    Because  the  free  oxygen  in  the  soil  and  in 
the  water  allows  unrestrained  oxidation,   and  be- 
cause certain  minute  organisms  associated  generally 
with  mineral  matter  and  known  as  the  bacteria  of 
nitrification  decompose  the  waste,  freeing  ammonia. 
Then  from   this  ammonia,   nitric   acid  and  subse- 
quently the  nitrites  and  nitrates  are  formed. 

729.  The  nitrites  and  nitrates  therefore  are  indica- 
tions that  animal  waste  has  been  present  in  the  water. 
When  waste  has  reached  that  stage  its  power  for 
evil  has  gone,  but  more  waste  may  follow  too  rapidly 
for  the  soil  to  neutralize;  or  it  may  be  there  already 
in  excess. 

730.  Concentrated  waste  in  the  shape  of  sewage 
must  ultimately  overcome  the  regenerating  influences 
of  a  limited  area,  and  these  indications  of  pre-exist- 


WATER.  160 

ing  danger  should  lead  to  the  suspicion  of  present 
danger. 

731.  The  preceding  chiefly  concerns  wells  toward 
which  broken  sewers  or  imperfect  vaults  may  ooze, 
or  down  whose  mouths  surface  slops  may  drip. 

The  Detection  of  Organic  Waste  in  Water. 

732.  The  presence,   not   the  amount,   of  organic 
matter  may  be  roughly  determined  thus : 

Half  fill  a  quart  bottle  with  water  at  70°-80°  F.  ; 
shake  it  vigorously,  and  if  a  bad  odor  is  detected  it 
is  doubtful  or  bad.  But  all  bad  waters  do 'not  have 
an  odor.  Therefore  evaporate  3  or  4  ounces  to  per- 
fect dryness  in  a  porcelain  or  platinum  capsule,  and 
then  ignite  the  dish.  If  there  is  no  blackening  or 
only  an  easily-dissipated  darkening  of  the  residue, 
the  water  is  probably  good.  If  the  crust  blackens, 
there  is  probably  carbon  from  an  excess  of  vegeta- 
tion. If  nitrous  fumes  are  evolved  and  the  carbon 
sparkles  with  energy,  animal  matter  may  be  sus- 
pected. 

733.  The  permanganate  salts  are  rich  in  oxygen 
that  is  easily  given  up.     Permanganate  of  potash 
added   by   degrees    until   the   oxygen   is   absorbed 
colors  water  a  rich  pink  or  red.     From  the  amount 
required  to  tinge  the  water  an  estimate  may  be  made 
of  the  quantity,  but  not  of  the  kind,  of  organic  matter. 
It  responds  equally  to  beef  soup  and  street  filth. 

.  The  Ultimate  Disappearance  of  Sewage. 

734.  What  becomes  of  the  vast  quantity  of  sewage 
poured  into  running  streams — often  those  that  sooner 
or   later   furnish   drinking-water   for    communities, 


170  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

although  uo  community  should  risk  taking  its  drink- 
ing-water from  such  a  stream? 

735.  It   is    commonly   said    that   streams    purify 
themselves.     Dilution    has    much    to    do    with    the 
apparent  disappearance  of  sewage;    the  volume  of 
water  is  very  great,  and  the  sewage  becomes  im- 
mensely attenuated.     But  even  specific  organic  par- 
ticles do  disappear  in  some  way,  and  the  accumula- 
tion of  deadly  poison,   that  a  priori  would  seem 
necessary,  does  not  occur. 

736.  As  a  rule  immediately,  and  always  finally,  sub- 
soil wate*  tends  toward  the  river-courses.     It  either 
swells  the  river  by  its  direct  volume,  which  is  the 
reason  why  a  stream  increases  as  it  descends,  inde- 
pendently of  tributaries,  or  it  forms  a  subaqueous 
river.     In  most  cases  both  conditions  exist. 

737.  This  constant  addition  of  practically  uncon- 
taminated  ground-water  steadily  dilutes  any  given 
amount    of   sewage.     All   water   holds   in   solution 
some   oxygen,    which   does   its   part   in   oxidation. 
Where  there  are  rapids  probably  more  oxygen  is 
entangled,  but,  contrary  to  the  older  opinion,  it  has 
been  found  that  swiftly-running  water  does  not  purify 
itself  as  quickly  as  that  which  is  still.     The  immersed 
solid  matter  is  acted  on  by  the  bacteria  of  decomposi- 
tion;  sedimentation  takes  place  literally,  or  practi- 
cally by  the  suspended  silt  enveloping  the  particles 
of  sewage.     Light  and  vegetation  are  active  agents. 
But  with  it  all,  Mason  believes  that  the  percentage  of 
pollution  to  disappear  per  mile  of  flow  continually 
decreases  as  the  stream  advances. 

738.  The  discharge  of  sewage  into  streams  whose 
banks  are  inhabited  should  be  forbidden  by  law,  as 


WATER.  171 

it  now  is  in  England    and  in    some  parts  of  this 
country. 

Water-supply  for  Troops. 

739.  On  halting  for  even  a  temporary  camp  the 
water-supply   must   be   immediately   guarded,    and 
with  special  precaution  if  it  is  small.     Great  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  margin  of  a  stream  is  not 
trampled  into  mud  and  the  water  made  turbid.     To 
this  end  it  is  profitable  immediately  to  lay  down  an 
approach,  as  of  rails,  boards,  or  logs.     Wells  should 
be  protected  against  both  pollution  and  waste. 

740.  By   moderately  digging  out  a  small  spring 
and  sinking  a  casing  or  barrel,  the  visible  supply 
will  be  increased  and  waste  avoided.     If  the  stream 
is  shallow,  promptly  make  a  small  reservoir  by  a 
temporary   dam   for   drinking,    one   below   for   the 
horses,  and    one   still    lower   for   washing.      Horses 
will  drink  better  and  more  rapidly  where  the  water 
is  5  or  6  inches  deep,  which  can  easily  be  arranged. 
Where  it  is  limited,  an  officer  should  be  in  immediate 
charge  of  the  whole  water-supply. 

741.  At  a  permanent  camp  where  the  command 
is    large  in  proportion  to  the   water-supply,  make 
one   or   more  reservoirs    to    retain  the  water   that 
flows  by  night  and  draw  from  them  the  cooking- 
and  drinking-water.     Extend  lower  down  a  single 
or  double  row   of   sunken   half-barrels   for   horses, 
all  connected  by  little  gutters  to  avoid  waste,  and 
conduct  the  surplus  into  a  still  lower  reservoir. 

742.  An  essay  for  the  use  of  volunteers,  published 
in  1861,  advised  placing  latrines  over  running  water 
when  possible.      Fortunately  this  was  corrected  in 


172  NOTES   ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

the  next  edition,  and  it  is  only  cited  to  show  that 
the  importance  of  guarding  water  is  sometimes 
strangely  overlooked  (Ref.  Hd.  Bk.  Med.  Sci.,  1st  ed., 
Ill,  p.  756).  Munson  reports  that  precisely  the 
same  error  was  committed  by  raw  troops  in  the  late 
Spanish  war.  (See  par.  509.) 

743.  "  No  thing  is  better  established  than   that  no 
refuse,  and    especially  no  faecal  matter,  should  be 
discharged  so  as  to  follow  a  stream  either  directly  or 
indirectly,  unless  it  be  one  of  the  great  rivers,  and 
then  only  when  it  is  certain  that  the  water  is  to  be 
used  by  no  one  within  a  reasonable  distance.     It  is 
suicidal  to  pollute  small  streams  that  may  possibly 
supply  our  own  forces,  then  or  later,  and  it  is  crim- 
inal to  spread  disease  in  that  way  among  a  civil 
population,  or  .  .  .  to  an  enemy/'      (Ref.  Hd.  Bk., 
loc.  cit.) 

744.  On  the  march  a  man  requires  for  cooking  and 
drinking  6  pints  a  day,  increased  in  hot  climates  to  8 
pints,  and  an  equal  amount  for  washing  the  person. 
In  stationary  camps  5  gals,  for  all  purposes.     In 
barracks,  for  all  purposes  except  water-closets  and 
bath-rooms,  10  gals,  per  head.     With  water-closets 
and  baths,  25  gals.     Hospitals  require  several  times 
as  much  per  man,  depending  on  the  character  of  the 
cases. 

745.  A  horse  drinks  about  1  \  gals.,  requiring  three 
minutes.     Each    gulp   represents    about    3   ounces. 
Horses,  if  allowed  all  they  will  drink,  require  6-10 
gals,   per   day,   and    about    3    gals,    per    head    for 
police  purposes.     All  the  foregoing  figures  are  the 
lowest. 


WATER.  173 

Snow  and  Ice. 

746.  Snow  is  more  impure  than  rain  from  the 
same  region.     It  takes  up  foreign  substances  freely 
from  the  air  through  which  it  passes  and  absorbs 
them  from  the  soil  on  which  it  lies.     Snow-water, 
especially  in  densely  inhabited  regions,  equally  with 
other  doubtful  water,  should  be  boiled  before  con- 
sumption. 

747.  Water  is  partly  purified  by  freezing,  but  so 
imperfectly  as  to  require  the  sources  of  ice-supply 
for  domestic  use  to  be  as   carefully  selected  and 
guarded  as  those  of  water. 

748.  Clear  ice  from  polluted  sources  may  contain 
a  very  small  proportion  of  injurious  matter;    but 
snow-ice  and  that  obtained  by  flooding  is  apt  to  be 
unsafe.     As  bacteria  are  attracted  by  air-bubbles, 
•" bubbly  ice"  is  especially  dangerous. 

749.  Artificial  ice,  unless  from  distilled  water,  may 
be  more  impure  than  natural  ice  from  the  same 
water. 


vm. 

PREVENTABLE   DISEASES. 

Malaria. 

750.  Malaria,  literally  bad  air,  has  gradually  come 
to  mean  a  disease  or  a  class  of  diseases.      It  is  dis- 
tinctly recognized  that  a  parasitic  micro-organism 
found  in  the  blood,  known  as  the  plasmodium  mala- 
riaz,  is  so  closely  associated  with  it  that  this  must 
be  regarded  as  the  cause. 

751.  These  plasmodia  have  not  yet  been  isolated 
outside  of  living  bodies,  and  their  absolute  origin  is 
not  known.     But  it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated 
that  for  them  the  variety  of  mosquito   known  as 
anopheles,  whether  single  or  multiple,  but  probably 
multiple,  acts  an  intermediate  host,  and  that  the 
parasite    completes    its    development    in    the    red 
corpuscles  of  the  human  blood. 

752.  The  disease  is  spread  by  the  mosquito  suck- 
ing from  the  blood  of  a  malarial  patient  the  parasite 
which,  after  several  stages  within  the  insect,  reaches 
its  salivary  glands,  whence  it  enters  the  new  subject 
that  may  be  bitten. 

753.  Hence  if  one  is  not  bitten  by  an  infected 
mosquito  he  will  not  contract  the  disease.     There- 
fore the  immediate  precaution  is   to  preserve   the 
person  by  the  careful  use  of  netting,  or  to  repel  the 

174 


PREVENTABLE   DISEASES.  175 

insect  for  the  time  by  the  application  to  exposed 
parts  of  the  person  of  pungent  aromatic  oils,  as 
pennyroyal  or  eucalyptus. 

754.  Within  a  barrack  or  other  dwelling,  mosquitoes 
resting  on  the  ceiling,  and  sometimes  those  on  the 
walls,  may  be  destroyed  by  cautiously  holding  under 
them  a  small  vessel  (as  the  top  of  a  tin  can  on  the  end 
of  a  light  pole)  containing  a  little  household  ammonia, 
mineral  oil,  or  spirits  of  turpentine.     Any  of  these 
vapors  stupefies  the  insect  and  it  falls  into  the  cup. 

755.  The  mosquito  may  be  exterminated  by  dry- 
ing up  the  pools,  often  very  small,  mere  footprints 
in  the  ground,  or  emptying  cans  containing  a  little 
water,  in  which  they  breed,  and  by  killing  the  larvae 
by  a  film  of  mineral  oil  over  such  water  as  cannot 
be  removed.     The  mosquitoes  that  hibernate  are  usu- 
ally impregnated  female  anopheles,  and  Giles,  quoted 
by  Abbott,   "  makes   the  valuable  suggestion   that 
during  the  hibernating  season  all  buildings  likely  to 
harbor  the  impregnated  anopheles  [particularly  the 
eaves  of  barns,  houses,  and  outbuildings,  as  well  as 
their    interiors]    should    be    thoroughly    renovated, 
lime- washed,  and  fumigated  with  sulphur/'  to  which 
may  be  added,  or  with  formaldehyde  or  the  fumes 
of  burning  pyrethrum  (insect-powder),  or  even  to- 
bacco or  the  smoke  of  green  wood. 

756.  According  to  the  present  state  of  our  knowl- 
edge, malarial  disease  would  be  abolished  if  all  in- 
fected mosquitoes  were  exterminated  and  all  mala- 
rial patients  were  made    well  by  the  destruction, 
through  the  systematic  use  of  quinine,  of  the  para- 
sites within  the  body,  so  as  to  cut  off  the  supply 
of  infecting  material. 


176  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

757.  By  no  means  all  anopheles  are  infected,  for 
they  are  found  over  large  areas  quite  untainted; 
but  they  may  become  infected  when  they  feed  on 
malarial  patients.     And  such  patients,  perhaps  not 
very  susceptible   to  its  immediate  effects,   yield  a 
constant  supply   of   the   poison.     For  instance,   in 
nearly   all   Filipino   scouts,   even   when   apparently 
well,   the  parasite  is  present,  and  from  them   the 
insect  readily  transfers  it  to  the  associated  white 
soldiers. 

758.  In    like   manner   infected   immigrants    have 
introduced  the  disease  for  the  first  time  into  an 
isolated  and  hitherto  immune  country,  whence  prac- 
tically the  whole  population  was  attacked,  as  in  the 
Island  of  Mauritius  about  1865. 

759.  Although  not  yet  isolated  outside  of  human 
or  insect  life,  the  virulence  of  the  poison  notoriously 
varies  in  different  regions.     It  is  peculiarly  deadly 
in  some  places,  and  such  localities  should  be  care- 
fully avoided,  either  as  camping-places  or  merely  to 
be  marched  through. 

760.  Notwithstanding  all  direct  experiment  to  con- 
vey the  disease  by  drinking  water  taken  from  mala- 
rious marshes  has  failed,  there  is  a  widely  estab- 
lished belief  that  such  water  may  induce  the  disease. 
In  deference  thereto  the  use  of  boiled  water,  prefera- 
bly as  tea  or  coffee,  is  commended. 

761.  There  is  little  doubt  that  a  well-nourished 
and  properly  clad   person  resists  malarial  disease, 
even  when  the  cause  enters  the  blood,  better  than 
the  weak. 

762.  Whether  it  is    exclusively   an   attribute   of 
insect  life  or  not,  it  remains  true  that  whatever  the 


PREVENTABLE.  DISEASES.  177 

nature  of  the  malarial  poison,  it  appears  to  be  borne 
for  limited  distances  by  the  wind,  to  lie  compara- 
tively near  the  ground,  to  be  stopped  by  mechanical 
barriers,  to-  be  avoided  by  residence  in  an  upper 
story,  and  to  take  effect  most  distinctly  when  the 
exposed  person  is  poorly  nourished,  ill-clad,  and  with 
an  empty  stomach,  and  the  danger  of  infection  is 
greater  at  night.  All  these  conditions  are  satisfied 
by  the  mosquito  theory. 

Typhoid  Fever  and  Cholera. 

763.  Typhoid  fever  is  strictly  an  eruptive  disease, 
and  like  other  eruptive  diseases  is  unlikely  to  attack 
the  same   person   twice.     As   it   is  very  likely  to 
prevail  among  newly-raised  troops,  the  utmost  cau- 
tion is  required    to    avoid  its  propagation,   which 
chiefly    occurs    through    the    discharges    from    the 
bowels   and  the  kidneys.     In  camp  all  faecal  dis- 
charges should  be  thoroughly  disposed  of,  because 
it  is  impossible  at  the  outset  to  distinguish  a  typhoid- 
fever  case  from  a  simple  diarrhoea. 

764.  In  poorly  conserved  camps  it  is  very  possible 
for  polluted  dust  to  convey  the  disease  by  being  swal- 
lowed with  food  or  otherwise.     And  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  flies  will  convey  upon  their  feet 
the  infecting  matter  from  the  dejecta  to  food.     (See 
par.  515.) 

765.  This  general  conclusion  of  the  Washington 
Medical  Committee  is  unimpeachable:  Typhoid  fe- 
ver increases  in  proportion  to  the  saturation  of  the 
soil   with   decomposing   organic   matter,    especially 
human  excreta,  and  to  the  drinking  of  infected  well- 
water. 


178  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

766.  Our  exact  knowledge  as  to  the  life  of  the 
typhoid  germ  in  the  soil  when  undisturbed  is  not 
satisfactory.     It  is  believed  that  it  is  not  destroyed 
by  the  oxidizing  and  nitrifying  bacteria,  and  author- 
ities assign  it  a  vitality  ranging  from  two  days  to  six 
months.     This  variation  probably  depends  on  the 
character  of  the  soil. 

767.  Cholera  has  nothing  in  common  with  typhoid 
fever  except  its   tendency   to   spread   through   the 
discharges ,    especially   from    the    bowels.     It   may 
occur    several    times    in    the    same  person.      But 
mild    or    "  walking "    cases    of    typhoid    fever    and 
those   of    choleraic    diarrhoea,  for  both  diseases  at 
the   beginning  have   their  only  indication  of  sick- 
ness in  a  painless  diarrhoea,  are  very  liable  to  in- 
fect communities. 

768.  The  cholera  cause  probably  escapes  change 
in  the  soil  for  a  considerable  period  when  only  influ- 
enced by  natural  causes,  wherein  it  is  like  the  typhoid 
cause,  but  it  has  a  relatively  short  life  in  water  ex- 
cept as  reinforced  from  without.     The  utmost  cau- 
tion is  necessary  in  disinfecting  the  discharges  of 
both  cholera  and  typhoid  fever  before  disposing  of 
them,  and  in  preserving  the  water-supply  from  con- 
tamination. 

769.  For  the  same  reason  old  camp-grounds,  and 
especially  those  once  infected,  are  always  condemned. 
But  neither  cholera  nor  typhoid  fever  is  contagious 
by  mere  presence,  as  smallpox  is. 

770.  It  is  probable  that  the  cholera  poison  does 
not  flourish  in  acid  fluids  either  within  or  without 
the  body,  and  both  of  these  diseases  spread  more 
easily  where  alkaline  fermentation  occurs.     Hence 


PREVENTABLE    DISEASES.  179 

to  acidulate  the  excreta  is  one  of  the  best  preventives 
against  these  diseases  spreading. 

771.  Carbolic    acid   in    excess,    sulphate   of   iron 
(copperas),  or,  best  of  all,  mercuric  bichloride  (corro- 
sive sublimate)  are  to  be  used  for  every  discharge, 
including  the  urine  in  typhoid  fever  and  the  vomit 
in  cholera,  which  must  be   thoroughly   disinfected 
before    committal    to    the    sewers.    But    mercuric 
bichloride  corrodes  metals,  and   it   should  not  be 
passed  through  lead  or  iron  pipes. 

772.  Should  there  be  no  sewers,  similar  disinfec- 
tion must  be  practised  and  the   whole   be  buried 
beyond  any  possible  contamination  of  air  or  water. 
Everything  contaminated  by  excreta  of  any  kind  in 
these  diseases  is  to  be  similarly  and  completely  disin- 
fected or  destroyed. 

773.  There  is  no  known  chemical  method  of  an- 
tagonizing the  typhoid   poison  in  water,  so  as  to 
leave  it  fit  to  drink.     But  Munson  quotes  Christmas 
as  saying  that  0.6-0.8  gm.  citric  or  tartaric  acid  to 
the  litre  surely  sterilizes  water  against  the  cholera 
cause.     This  is  perfectly  harmless  and  is  not  dis- 
agreeable. 

774.  Should  there  be  danger  of  an  outbreak  of 
cholera,  in  the  absence  of  direct  medical  advice  it 
would  be  well  in  addition  to  boiling  the  water  to  put 
the  command  on  an  acidulated  drink,  as  " lemonade" 
of  aromatic  sulphuric  acid.     This  is  believed  to  have 
prevented  the  disease  in  special  communities. 

775.  Protective    "vaccination/'    so    called,   more 
strictly  inoculation  by  proper  toxins ,  has  been  em- 
ployed on  a  large  scale  and  with  fair  success  against 
typhoid  fever,  cholera,  and  plague. 


180  NOTES  ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

Yellow  Fever. 

776.  Yellow  fever  is  a  disease  of  navigable  regions 
in  hot  and  moist  climates  that,  as  a  rule,  does  not 
twice  attack  the  same  person.     Walter  Reed  has 
demonstrated  both  positively  and  negatively  that 
it  is  propagated,  and  propagated  only,  by  the  mos- 
quito.    The  female  of  the  Stegomyia  fasciata  is  the 
intermediate  host  for  the  specific  agent  of  this  dis- 
ease,  as   the  anopheles  is  for  the  malarial  cause. 
Like  the  latter,  it  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated 
out  of  living  bodies.     The  Stegomyia  is  essentially  a 
domestic  mosquito,  not  flying  afield  like  the  anopheles 
and  culex. 

777.  The  prevention  of  yellow  fever  consists  in 
destroying  the  mosquitoes  that  have  been  or  may 
become  infected.     Gorgas  has  proved  the  possibility 
of  doing  this,  even  in  so  vast  and  fertile  a  hotbed  as 
Havana.     No  mosquito  should  be  allowed  to  reach 
a  yellow-fever  patient,  nor,  having  become  infected, 
to  escape  from  the  apartment. 

778.  This  disease  may  be  avoided,  speaking  gener- 
ally, by  removing  the  troops  to  a  locality,  such  as 
can  usually  be  found  not  remote-  from  the  seat  of 
outbreak,   where  it   will  not  spread.     Presumably 
this  immunity  is  due  to  the  absence  of  the  special 
mosquito. 

779.  The  sick  person  and  the  infected  mosquito, 
not-  the  effects  nor  the  quarters  of  the  sick,  alone 
spread  the  disease.     It  develops  in  man  within  five 
days    after   infection.     If,    therefore,    non-immunes 
who  have  been  exposed  are  detained  five  days  and 
do  not  sicken,  they  may  safely  be  admitted. 


PREVENTABLE   DISEASES.  181 

780.  The  infection  develops  within  the  mosquito 
in  twelve  days,  after  which  time  the  insect  is  capable 
of  conveying  the  disease  by  its  bite      Therefore  the 
most  rigorous  exclusion  must  be  maintained  against 
possibly    infected    insects    through    fumigation    di- 
rected against  all  manner  of  containers,  from  ships 
and  railroad-cars  to  hand-bags  and  open  cans.     Dis- 
infection by  germicides  is  superfluous,  but  to  destroy 
the  insect  is  imperative. 

781.  With  the  opening  of  an  Isthmian  canal,  the 
utmost    caution    must    be    used    against    receiving 
infected  insects  on  shipboard  within  our  own  tropics 
and  conveying  them  to  Asia,  where  the  disease  has 
never  occurred.      The  Stegomyia,  not  yet  infected, 
abounds  in  the  Philippines. 

Plague. 

782.  Plague,  practically  confined  under  our  flag  to 
the  Oriental  races,  is  nevertheless  always  a  possible 
menace  to  our  troops  in  the  Philippines.     Its  cause 
is  a  bacillus  introduced  through  a  break  in  the  skin. 
This  flourishes  best  in  filthy  soil,  although  of  course 
filth  does  not  originate  it,  and  it  is  carried  over  wide 
areas  by  vermin,  especially  by  mice  and  rats. 

783.  Cleanliness  of  person  and  of  surroundings  is 
an  element  of  protection.     Rats,  its  great  distribu- 
tors, should  be  exterminated  as  far  as  possible.     And 
a  preventive  toxin  may  be  used. 

Consumption  and  Diphtheria. 

784.  Consumption    depends   upon  a  bacillus  dis- 
seminated not  by  the  breath  but  by  the  sputa  which 
are  charged  with  it.     When  the  sputa  are  sufficiently 


182  NOTES   ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

dried  to  be  blown  about  they  may  be  inhaled,  and 
the  contained  bacilli,  if  not  destroyed  in  the  blood,  set- 
up the  disease.  In  proportion  as  a  barrack  or  other 
apartment  is  crowded,  is  there  the  risk  of  this  disease 
spreading  from  any  accidentally  introduced  case ;  and 
the  risk  diminishes  exactly  as  the  air-space  enlarges. 
Nearly  all  armies  that  were  formerly  ravaged  by 
consumption  are  now  practically  exempt,  owing  to 
their  greater  air  allowance  in  barracks. 

785.  In  the  army  every  recognized  consumptive 
is  immediately  transferred  to  a  special  post,  where 
the    best,  sanitary  arrangements  for  combating  the 
disease  prevail.      As  soon  as   the  sputum  in  any 
protracted    "cold"    becomes    yellow,    it   should   be 
examined  microscopically  for  the  bacillus,  and  when 
that  is  found  the  soldier  should  be  transferred.     All 
infected  sputa  should  be  passed  into  a  combustible 
spit-cup  and  be  kept  moist,  and  the  cup  and  the 
handkerchiefs  be  burned ,  the  man  should  be  com- 
paratively isolated,  and  his  special  apartment  must 
be  disinfected. 

786.  It  must  be  carefully  remembered  that  con- 
sumption progresses  so  rapidly  at  the  ocean-level  in 
the  Philippines  that  immediate  removal  is  impera- 
tive— either  to  the  interior  mountain  land  or,  better, 
to  the  United  States. 

787.  Diphtheria  is  an  eminently  infectious  disease 
also  depending  upon  a  bacillus  which  enters  the  air- 
passages,  not  from  the  patient's  breath  but  with 
minute  particles   of  false  membrane  dislodged  by 
coughing  or  sneezing.     It  clings  persistently  to  places 
where  once  established ;  its  spread  is  greatly  fostered 
by  foul  air  and  imperfect  ventilation ;   and  disinfec- 


PREVENTABLE    DISEASES.  183 

tion  should  be  active  and  complete.  A  preventive 
antitoxin,  administered  subcutaneously  to  healthy 
persons  directly  exposed  to  the  disease,  will  protect 
against  diphtheria  for  a  limited  period. 

Contagious  Diseases  and  Disinfectants. 

788.  Measles  and  mumps  are  contagious  diseases 
that  almost  every  person  has  at  some  period  of  life. 
There  is  no  known  method  of  preventing  them  except 
by  avoiding  their  presence,  which  is  generally  impos- 
sible.    As  these  are  serious  in  camp,  special  hospital 
provision  must  be  made  among  newly-raised  troops. 
(See  par.  90.) 

789.  Scarlet  fever  and  smallpox  are  not  inevitable 
diseases,  but  are  contagious  and  when  they  occur  are 
very  serious.     Smallpox  is  always  to  be  restrained 
among  the  well  by  preventive  vaccination. 

790.  The  direct  contagion  of  scarlet  fever  is  not 
strong,   but  its  persistence  is  extreme,  even  after 
years  of  burial,  and  the  disease  itself  is  very  grave, 
especially  in  northern    latitudes.     Everything   con- 
nected with  such  a  case — clothing,  toys,  and  especially 
books — should  be  burned.   Infected  rooms  and  houses 
are  to  be  thoroughly  scraped,  lime-washed,  painted, 
and  scrubbed  with  corrosive  sublimate   1 : 1000,  as 
well  as   be   absolutely   ventilated.      Small  wooden 
houses  about  a  post  it  is  safer  to  destroy  by  fire. 

791.  "A  disinfectant  is  an  agent  capable  of  de- 
stroying the  infective  power  of  infectious  material." 
Substances    that   merely  neutralize  bad   odors   are 
not  disinfectants;  they  are  deodorants. 

792.  .The  best  disinfectants  are  "dry  and  moist 
heat ;  sulphur  dioxide ;  the  hypochlorites  of  lime  and 


184  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

of  soda  (chloride  of  lime  and  Labarraque's  solution) ; 
mercuric  chloride;  cupric  sulphate;  carbolic  acid" 
(Sternberg) ;  and  sunlight. 

793.  Formaldehyde,  generated  by  the  action  of 
heat  (from  a  special  lamp)  on  wood  alcohol,  in  the 
presence  of  moisture,  is  an  efficient  germicide  for 
exposed    micro-organisms.      It    will   not   penetrate 
fabrics    deeply.      It    kills    mosquitoes    only    when 
brought    into    direct    contact    with  sufficient    con- 
centration. 

794.  "It  is  impracticable  to  disinfect  an  occupied 
apartment,"  but  it  should  be  carefully  closed  and 
3  pounds  of  sulphur  be  burned  in  it  for  every  1000 
cubic  feet.     It  must  afterward  be  washed  down  by 
hand  with  a  solution  of  1  to  1000  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate, 2  to  100  of  carbolic  acid,  or  1  to  100  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime  or  sulphate  of  iron.     (Am.  Pub.  Health 
Assoc.) 

795.  For  privy-vaults  use  1  pound  corrosive  sub- 
limate dissolved  in  much  water,  to  500  pounds  esti- 
mated contents  of  vault. 

In  Conclusion. 

796.  Finally,  the  efficient  care  of  troops  is  a  work 
full  of  prosaic  detail,  but  the  minutiae  expand  natu- 
rally so  that  the  care  of  an  armed  man  and  that  of 
an  army  are  problems  of  similar  factors,  only  varying 
in  their  power,  in  the  science  of  military  hygiene. 

797.  Besides  their  physical  care,  the  cultivation  of 
contentment  and  judicious  appeals  to  personal  and 
professional  pride  are  important  in  forming  the  best 
soldiers. 


IX. 

THE  CARE  OF  TROOPS  IN  THE  FIELD. 

The  very  first  fact  in  the  efficiency  of  an  army  is 
its  health.  The  success  of  a  campaign  depends  upon 
hostile  contact,  actual  as  in  battle  or  potential  as  in 
manoeuvres;  but  in  either  form  those  operations  re- 
quire vigorous  men  for  their  execution.  As  every 
student  of  military  affairs  knows,  the  deaths  in  the 
field  from  disease  far  exceed  those  from  the  casualties 
of  action,  and  the  discharges  for  disability  for  illness 
greatly  outnumber  those  for  wounds.  It  is  also  true 
that  the  newer  the  troops  the  more  sickly  are  they,  so 
that  sometimes  the  ranks  are  much  reduced  before 
the  enemy  is  found.  That  is,  it  is  the  camp  and  not 
the  battle  that  at  first  and  most  seriously  disables 
men.  The  prevention  of  very  much  of  this  disease 
lies  in  the  hands  of  officers  of  the  line.  Medical  offi- 
cers can  point  out  the  methods  of  prevention,  but 
their  execution  rests  with  the  officers  in  actual  com- 
mand. By  an  intelligent  application  of  their  author- 
ity these  can  reduce  the  preventable  disease  to  the 
minimum,  and  nearly  all  camp  disease  is  preventable. 

A  large  improvised  army  of  seasoned  troops  is  a 
contradiction  of  terms.  Therefore  when  a  newly- 
raised  army  is  to  take  the  field,  its  material  should  be 
selected  as  carefully  as  possible.  Youthful  recruits 
have  little  military  value.  Men  for  active  service 

185 


186  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

should  not  be  less  than  twenty-two  years  of  age,  or 
they  would  be  too  immature  physiologically.  Imma- 
ture men  in  the  ranks  require  special  care,  because 
their  endurance  and  adaptability  are  inferior  as  a 
class.  Such  soldiers  succumb  under  the  exertion 
and  hardships  that  at  any  time  may,  and  sometimes 
must,  be  required  of  them. 

All  collections  of  young  men  are  liable  to  epidemics 
of  such  contagious  diseases  as  measles,  mumps,  Ger- 
man measles,  scarlet  fever,  as  they  may  not  have 
suffered  from  in  childhood;  on  which  account  rural 
recruits  in  particular  furnish  a  large  immediate  sick- 
list.  Regiments  raised  directly  in  the  country  must 
expect  to  pass  through  a  period  of  inefficiency  from 
measles  alone.  That  disease  always  ravages  such 
commands.  It  is  a  very  serious  matter  for  adults  in 
camp,  and  the  colder  the  climate  the  more  grave  are 
its  consequences.  There  is  practically  no  way  ex- 
cept by  isolation  to  prevent  these  contagious  dis- 
eases. The  most  that  regimental  officers  can  do  is  to 
provide  abundant  air-space  and  protection  against 
the  weather  for  those  within  range. 

Rural  recruits  do  not  bear  as  well  as  those  from 
the  towns  the  irregular  hours  and  the  night  work  of 
military  life,  nor  do  they  learn  as  quickly.  But 
after  they  have  become  habituated  to  discipline  and 
its  requirements  they  are  more  efficient. 

All  recruits  are  apt  to  suffer  from  troubles  of  diges- 
tion and  assimilation.  The  plainer  food  and,  partic- 
ularly, the  cooking  with  which  in  the  beginning  they 
are  supplied  disturb  the  health  of  many,  and  one  of 
the  first  duties  of  a  company  commander  is  to  secure 
a  really  competent  field  cook  for  his  men.  Intelligent 


THE    CARE   OF   TROOPS   IN   THE   FIELD.  187 

assistants  should  then  be  detailed  in  succession,  so  as 
to  spread  a  knowledge  of  the  preparation  of  food  as 
rapidly  as  possible.  When  every  man  can  acceptably 
cook  his  own  ration  under  the  conditions  of  the 
bivouac,  that  command  has  reached  a  high  state  of 
efficiency.  It  is  in  this  respect  that  volunteers,  and 
especially  the  organized  militia,  are  often  woefully 
at  fault.  When  called  into  service  they  do  not 
know  how  to  prepare  their  food.  Training  of  this 
kind,  instead  of  dependence  upon  hired  caterers  in 
their  summer  camps,  would  add  immeasurably  to 
their  efficiency  when  first  mustered  in.  The  Na- 
tional Guard  should  understand  that  military  cook- 
ing is  more  important  than  markmanship  in  the 
early  days  of  a  campaign.  It  is  useless  to  place  in 
front  of  the  enemy,  or  indeed  to  hold  in  reserve, 
men  however  well  equipped  who  cannot  keep  the 
field  in  vigor  from  inability  to  subsist  on  the  food 
supplied.  On  account  of  the  common  difficulty 
with  field  food  at  the  beginning,  an  extra  supply  of 
good  bread  should  always  be  provided.  It  is  invari- 
ably acceptable  to  recruits,  it  is  a  good  diet,  and 
none  of  it  goes  to  waste. 

The  most  important  single  article  of  uniform  is 
the  shoe,  and  it  is  a  company  officer's  duty  to  see 
that  his  men  are  properly  equipped  in  that  way  as 
soon  as  they  are  mustered  in.  The  soldier's  march- 
ing capacity  depends  upon  the  character  of  his  foot- 
gear, and  it  is  also  in  this  respect  that  the  organized 
militia  when  mustered  in  with  State  equipment  are 
apt  to  be  defective,  because  so  many  of  those  men 
wear  their  civilian's  shoe  under  military  conditions. 
One  of  the  most  painful  trials  for  all  troops  begin- 


188  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

ning  a  campaign,  whether  otherwise  trained  or  not, 
is  foot-soreness.  The  almost  invariable  attempt  of 
raw  troops  to  make  an  excessive  march  in  every-day 
shoes  leads  to  a  great  deal  of  agony  that  might  be 
avoided.  The  military  shoe  as  issued  is  not  ideal, 
but  it  is  much  better  than  what  the  soldier  will  buy 
and  wear  if  not  prevented.  No  man  should  be 
excused  from  wearing  the  regulation  shoe,  unless 
under  very  exceptional  circumstances  certified  by  a 
medical  officer  of  experience.  To  be  serviceable,  a 
marching-shoe  should  be  large  enough  in  all  direc- 
tions, but  not  too  large.  When  the  foot  moves 
within  the  shoe  it  is  quite  apt  to  develop  chafes. 
The  shoes  should  be  made  supple  with  oil,  and  for 
better  endurance,  have  hobnails  in  the  cole.  The 
company  officer  should  convince  himself  by  direct 
and  repeated  personal  inspection  that  his  men's  feet 
are  properly  cared  for  as  to  nails,  and  in  the  absence 
of  corns  and  bunions.  Men  should  be  instructed  to 
cut  the  nails  square  across,  not  rounded,  a  little  but 
not  too  far  behind  the  end  of  the  toe.  Especially 
when  there  is  a  tendency  to  grow  in,  the  corner  of 
the  nail  must  not  be  rounded. 

Before  a  march  the  foot  should  be  well  greased 
with  tallow  or  neat's-foot  oil  (but  these  are  not  easily 
had  in  the  field),  or  the  inside  of  the  stocking  should 
be  covered  with  a  stiff  lather,  carefully  rubbed  in,  of 
common  yellow  soap  (which  always  should  be  at 
hand).  Should  the  stockings  excite  pain  on  a  pro- 
longed march,  the  pressure  is  sometimes  relieved  by 
changing  them  to  the  other  feet  or  by  turning  them 
inside  out.  Plain  rags  wrapped  around  the  feet  are 
an  efficient  substitute  for  stockings,  that  sometimes 


THE   CARE    OF   TROOPS   IN    THE    FIELD.  189 

ire  very  comfortable  and  always  are  much  cleaner. 
^  blister  on  the  foot  should  be  opened  by  only  a 
3iick  at  the  lowest  point.  Or,  better  if  practicable, 
3ass  a  threaded  needle  through  it  and  tie  the  ends  of 
:he  thread  together.  This  will  drain  the  fluid  with- 
>ut  disturbing  the  delicate  skin.  The  next  day  the 
mds  of  the  thread  may  be  cut  off,  but  the  inner  part 
should  not  be  removed.  To  soak  the  feet  in  water, 
especially  cold  water,  although  grateful  at  the  time, 
s  of  doubtful  advantage.  It  is  better  to  wipe  them 
carefully  with  a  damp  towel  or  to  bathe  them  gently 
vith  tepid  water  and  rub  in  an  animal  oil.  The 
atter  is  hardly  practicable  on  a  march.  Chafed 
tnd  inflamed  surfaces  should  be  well  greased  or  be 
:overed  with  a  clay  poultice  (Sundberg).  The  sal- 
cylic  and  talcum  foot-powder  or  ointment  within 
he  stocking  is  particularly  efficacious.  Spare  stock- 
ngs  should  be  put  on  at  the  end  of  the  march,  and 
hose  worn  during  the  day  be  dried  and  beaten,  or  if 
>ossible  be  washed,  for  the  morrow. 

Individual  cleanliness  is  a  material  factor  of  health 
ind  efficiency,  and  the  stated  inspections'  by  com- 
>any  officers  should  embrace  the  condition  of  the 
>erson  and  of  the  underclothing.  At  least  once  a 
reek  at  an  inspection,  combined  with  the  daily 
aspection  of  quarters  or  not,  the  actual  condition 
hould  be  observed  under  commands  similar  to 
hese:  " Remove  both  shoes  and  one  stocking! 
)pen  coats  and  shirts!  Non-commi  sioned  officers 
xcepted."  Uncleanliness  thus  observed  should  be 
olio  wed  up.  An  inspection  confined  to  the  outer 
iress  and  satisfied  with  clean  spare  underclothing  in 
he  blanket-roll,  regardless  of  what  may  be  on  the 


190  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

person,  is  unworthy  the  name  and  encourages  con- 
cealment. This  is  the  more  important  with  new 
troops,  because  with  some  of  them  exact  care  of  the 
person  is  an  unfamiliar  task  and  to  all  the  meagre 
accommodations  of  the  field  interpose  obstacles. 
Recruits  require  nearly  as  much  supervisory  care  as 
children,  and  it  should  be  given  unremittingly  and 
intelligently  until  they  become  adapted  to  their 
new  life.  On  that  account,  that  they  may  see  as 
well  as  hear  what  to  do,  it  is  very  desirable  to  assign 
regular  recruits  to  organized  companies  as  promptly 
as  they  are  sufficiently  drilled  not  to  destroy  the  for- 
mation. And  it  is  equally  important  to  introduce 
a  few  good  old  soldiers,  if  they  can  be  found,  into 
volunteer  organizations.  The  exception  is  never 
to  use  a  British,  and  especially  an  English,  ex-soldier 
in  such  a  capacity.  They  are  always  grumblers 
and  usually  insubordinate,  and  their  bad  moral 
example  much  more  than  counterbalances  such 
physical  instruction  as  they  may  impart.  After  new 
soldiers  truly  pass  out  of  the  recruit  stage  this  vigi- 
lance may  be  relaxed,  and  at  no  time  should  concern 
degenerate  into  friction  and  worry.  Perpetual  nag- 
ging— too  curious  supervision — is  almost  as  bad  as 
contemptuous  neglect. 

Where  water  is  scarce,  a  very  small  quantity,  a 
quart,  with  a  small  sponge  or  a  damp  towel  is  suffi- 
cient for  cleanliness.  Where  it  is  abundant,  plunge 
bathing  should  be  encouraged,  except  in  the  very 
heat  of  the  day  or  near  nightfall.  Soldiers  should 
be  encouraged  to  carry  a  cake  of  soap,  in  a  small 
flannel  bag  to  avoid  waste.  For  officers,  soap 
" leaves"  in  a  small  water-proof  box,  to  be  carried 


THE    CARE   OF  TROOPS   IN    THE   FIELD.  191 

in  the  pocket,  are  most  convenient.  Every  pro- 
longed campaign  where  opportunities  for  the  care  of 
the  person  are  deficient  is  marked  by  the  presence 
of  vermin.  These  may  affect  any  grade.  The  odor 
of  musk  is  said  to  be  deterrent,  but  it  can  only  be 
used  exceptionally.  To  thoroughly  boil  the  cloth- 
ing or  to  soak  it  in  sea-water  or  other  brine  is  the 
simplest  way  of  destroying  the  infection.  To  soak 
infected  clothing  in  a  barrel  of  water  containing  a 
handful  of  "fish  berries "  (cooculus  indicus)  is  said 
on  good  authority  to  be  efficacious.  A  careful  cap- 
tain has  been  known  to  carry  these  with  his  company 
property  for  this  especial  purpose. 

New  soldiers  invariably  begin  field  service  by 
attempting  to  carry  too  much,  and  then  very  soon 
they  abandon  necessary  things.  There  should  be  pre- 
pared in  advance  two  schedules,  one  of  articles  that 
must  and  another  of  such  as  may  be  carried.  The 
limit  of  the  first  should  not  be  lowered  nor  that  of 
the  second  be  exceeded.  But  after  six  months  the 
second  schedule  may  be  abandoned,  in  view  of  the 
experience  acquired.  On  daily  marches  it  is  found 
that  washing  the  face  and  neck  on  rising  is  not  well, 
probably  because  the  removal  of  the  natural  secre- 
tion makes  the  skin  more  susceptible  to  the  dust  and 
heat  of  the  route.  To  wash  the  eyes  and  mouth 
and  use  a  damp  towel  on  the  face  and  neck  is  prefer- 
able. When  camp  is  reached  the  entire  body  if  pos- 
sible, and  invariably  the  head,  the  genitals  and 
adjacent  folds,  and  the  feet,  should  be  washed. 
Soldiers'  hair  should  always  be  kept  short. 

When  lying  out  of  barracks,  soil-dampness  should 
always  be  guarded  against  by  an  impermeable  sheet, 


192  NOTES   ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

as  the  rubber  blanket,  between  the  man  and  the 
ground,  or  the  soldier  should  have  a  few  inches  of 
air-space  under  him.  In  a  wooded  country  imme- 
diate steps  should  be  taken  to  build  platforms  at 
least  two  and  better  four  feet  from  the  soil  upon 
which  the  tents  may  rest.  The  natural  sod  should 
not  be  removed.  To  raise  the  tent  thus  is  not  diffi- 
cult, and  it  has  secured  the  immunity  of  an  entire 
command  owing  to  the  air-swept  space  under  the 
sleepers.  If  the  tents  cannot  be  elevated,  bunks 
must  be  raised  well  above  the  ground.  Even  with 
shelter  tents,  there  must  be  some  approach  to  this. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  the  men  sleep  di- 
rectly on  the  ground,  and  whatever  constitutes  the 
floor,  whether  boards,  boughs,  or  straw,  must  be  re- 
moved and  the  surface  swept  and  exposed  to  the 
air,  and  if  possible  to  the  sun,  every  dry  day.  Tent 
walls  should  not  be  raised  to  windward  after  night- 
fall. Vegetation  liable  to  decay  is  not  healthful  to 
sleep  upon. 

Except  under  overruling  military  objections,  which 
would  rarely  occur,  tents  should  open  to  the  east, 
and  the  southern  wall  be  raised  in  good  weather 
after  the  day  is  advanced,  so  that  sunlight  may 
search  it  throughout.  Tents  not  on  elevated  plat- 
forms should  be  moved  weekly  to  the  alternate 
spaces  that  would  remain  in  the  lines. 

Every  tent  should  be  ditched  as  soon  as  pitched. 
That  is  a  good  rule  for  all  camps  not  in  rainless 
regions,  and  an  imperative  one  in  damp  places.  In 
any  climate  dampness  of  a  tent  floor  is  harmful. 
On  the  second  day  at  the  latest,  company  and 
other  streets  should  be  prepared.  These  and  a  gen- 


THE    CARE    OF   TROOPS    IN    THE   FIELD.  193 

eral  system  of  superficial  drainage  are  everywhere 
essential  for  comfort  and  in  wet  climates  for  health. 
It  by  no  means  follows  that  because  a  command 
is  in  the  field  it  has  an  adequate  air-supply.  Can- 
vas when  wet  is  practically  impermeable  to  the  air, 
and  in  a  wooded  or  chapparal  country  there  may  be 
little  movement  of  the  atmosphere.  Camps  may 
readily  be  too  compact,  and  troops  marching  in 
close  order  are  liable  to  modified  crowd-poisoning. 
The  utmost  extension  of  a  camp  that  military  con- 
siderations will  permit,  within  the  limits  of  reasonable 
police  supervision,  is  always  necessary,  and  espe- 
cially so  in  a  hot  country.  In  hot  weather  all  tents, 
shelter  or  other,  standing  more  than  one  night  should 
be  protected  overhead  by  a  brush  canopy,  and  brush 
arbors  in  front  of  tents  should  be  built  by  the  second 
day.  These  should  be  arranged  to  protect  from  the 
sun  with  the  least  interference  with  the  wind.  In 
camps  of  any  duration  vegetable  decay  from  these 
shades  must  be  guarded  against.  For  camps  of  posi- 
tion portable  huts  or  sheds  may  be  furnished.  These, 
whose  frames  may  be  of  wood  or  iron,  should  have 
ridge  ventilation  from  rafters  crossing  beyond  the 
true  peak,  louvered  lateral  openings  in  the  wall,  and 
a  steep  roof  to  throw  off  the  rain.  Temporary  huts 
of  the  same  general  character  with  fairly  open  walls 
can  speedily  be  built  where  there  is  light  timber. 
They  need  not  be  more  than  16  feet  wide  nor  10  feet 
to  the  eaves.  Every  structure  for  habitation  should 
be  ditched  as  carefully  as  the  tents,  and  by  prefer- 
ence be  raised  on  posts  well  clear  of  the  ground.  In 
cold  weather  it  should  be  well  banked.  If  the  floor 
is  not  raised,  the  boards  should  be  fastened  with 


194 


NOTES  ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 


screws  and  be  frequently  removed.  As  with  tents, 
the  principles  of  dry  soil,  a  free  air-space  under  the 
floor,  and  abundant  ventilation  and  sunlight  should 
be  maintained. 

Notwithstanding  air  may  have  free  access,  neither 
barracks  nor  tents  should  be  overcrowded.  Con- 
sumption spreads  readily  under  such  circumstances 
the  world  over.  In  all  stationary  camps  the  men 
develop  a  tendency  to  accumulate  useless  articles. 
These  are  hurtful  by  interfering  with  the  living  space, 


From  Notter  and  Firth's  Hygiene.     (By  the  courtesy  of  Messrs.   P 
Blakiston  &  Co  ) 

harboring  dust,  and  sometimes  promoting  decay,  and 
should  relentlessly  be  condemned.  At  every  daily 
inspection  in  dry  weather  the  floor  should  be  abso- 
lutely bare,  and  the  ground  beneath  it  be  observed. 
The  proper  police  of  all  military  camps  is  im- 
portant, particularly  in  southern  climates  where 
the  combination  of  heat  and  moisture  leads  to  the 
rapid  decomposition  of  waste  and  encourages  the 
plague  of  flies.  Hence  all  refuse  should  be  promptly 
removed  without  the  lines  and  everything  that  is 
combustible  be  burned.  Incombustible  material 
should  be  buried  in  trenches,  partly  for  the  sake  of 


THE    CARE    OF   TROOPS   IN    THE    FIELD.  195 

order  and  partly  that  no  de*bris  in  sight  may  serve 
as  an  excuse  for  other  such  neglect.  Kitchen  waste 
should  be  disposed  of  twice  daily. 

The  sinks,  miscalled  latrines  except  when  there  is 
water  carriage,  on  every  account  require  the  greatest 
care.  They  should  be  placed  to  leeward  if  possible, 
and  always  no  farther  away  than  absolutely  neces- 
sary, for  when  properly  cared  for  they  need  not  offend 
the  sense  of  smell  or  of  sight.  The  company  kitchens 
and  the  general  sinks  should  be  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  camp;  for  it  is  well  established  that  some  dis- 
eases may  be  communicated  by  flies  that  have  alighted 
in  sinks  transferring  with  their  feet  infected  particles 
of  filth  to  prepared  food  in  the  hands  of  the  cooks  or 
of  the  men.  It  is  imperative  that  sinks  should  not 
drain  toward  the  water-supply.  Each  sink  should 
be  from  12  to  20  ft.  long  by  6  to  8  or  more  ft.  deep, 
if  intended  for  use  more  than  twenty-four  hours.  It 
is  better  to  multiply  the  sinks  than  to  make  them 
too  long.  In  each  case  all  the  earth  should  be 
thrown  to  the  rear.  For  a  single  day's  use  3  ft.  is 
deep  enough.  But  they  should  be  dug  immediately 
for  every  part  of  a  command  .of  any  size.  It  is  only 
a  small  body  of  actively  moving  troops,  that  will  not 
be  followed  by  others,  that  can  afford  to  dispense 
with  them  for  a  single  night.  In  that  case,  as  well 
as  before  sinks  are  dug  if  there  is  even  trifling  delay, 
a  small  area  must  be  set  apart  to  leeward  where  men 
may  relieve  themselves.  When  this  is  done  and  the 
men  are  equipped  with  an  intrenching  tool,  each 
man  should  be  required  to  cover  his  evacuations 
with  fresh  earth  immediately.  The  use  of  sinks  or  of 
a  limited  locality  should  be  strictly  enforced.  There 


196  NOTES   ON  MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

is  no  more  distinct  sign  of  ill-disciplined  troops  than 
the  soil  pollution  that  follows  such  neglect.  Sinks 
should  be  screened  by  bushes  and  be  covered  from 
the  sun  when  possible.  In  very  wet  seasons  old 
canvas  may  be  reserved  to  protect  in  part  from 
the  rain.  Under  the  same  conditions  the  excavated 
earth  should  be  kept  dry  as  far  as  may  be.  Enough 
dry  earth  to  completely  cover  the  deposits  should 
be  thrown  in  evenly  at  least  thrice  daily — at  retreat, 
after  breakfast,  and  at  noon.  If  lime  can  be  pro- 
cured it  should  be  added  if  there  is  the  least  evidence 
of  dysentery  in  the  command,  for  dysentery  may  be 
contracted  by  the  well  who  frequent  foul  latrines 
used  by  such  sick.  To  burn  a  little  mineral  oil  on 
paper  or  straw  thrown  into  the  sink  helps  to  keep 
down  the  flies.  When  within  two  feet  of  the  surface 
the  sink  should  be  filled  in,  rounded  over,  distinctly 
marked,  and  a  new  one  prepared  in  the  same  gen- 
eral neighborhood.  All  sinks  should  be  filled  in  on 
breaking  camp  and  all  debris  burned,  if  there  is  no 
military  objection  to  the  smoke  from  the  fires.  Offi- 
cers' sinks  should  have  box  seats  open  to  the  rear, 
and  be  well  protected  in  front,  rear,  and  overhead. 
Urinals  should  be  arranged  in  convenient  places  in  a 
camp  of  permanence,  and  their  use  compelled;  for  it  is 
perfectly  possible  to  communicate  such  a  disease  as 
typhoid  fever  by  urine  indiscriminately  voided.  The 
sinks  used  by  the  sick  are  to  be  disinfected  as  the 
medical  officer  may  direct,  and  all  sinks  are  to  be 
inspected  daily  by  the  officer  of  the  day  in  addition 
to  the  medical  officer's  inspection. 

Cheerfulness  is  absolutely  necessary  for  a  healthy 
camp.     The  two  elements  that  insure  this  are  occu- 


THE   CARE    OF   TROOPS   IN   THE   FIELD.  197 

pation  and  amusement.  Ennui  is  the  parent  of  dis- 
content and  homesickness.  Discontent  spoils  the 
best  soldier,  and  homesickness  is  a  most  depressing 
disease.  Regular  occupation  besides  drills  is  neces- 
sary. After  a  camp  is  well  established  work,  prefer- 
ably of  a  military  character  should  be  found,  as  for 
instance  the  making  of  field  defences,  or  of  gabions 
and  fascines.  This  should  not  be  carried  to  exhaus- 
tion, nor  occupy  all  the  spare  time.  At  the  same 
time  athletic  games  should  be  encouraged  and  if 
necessary  be  organized  and  contests  arranged.  One 
of  the  tests  of  an  officer's  fitness  for  his  commission 
is  his  ability  to  interest  his  men  in  such  matters. 
Music  is  always  stimulating,  and  martial  music  is  a 
great  solace  in  the  discomfort  of  the  field.  Gam- 
bling, to  which  many  men  will  resort  in  the  absence 
of  rational  amusement,  is  hurtful  physically  and  mor- 
ally. It  tends  to  keep  men  out  of  the  fresh  air  in 
crowded  groups  and  constrained  positions,  it  en- 
courages nearly  all  of  the  baser  emotions,  and  is  a 
great  obstacle  to  discipline  in  peace  or  war.  When 
circumstances  permit,  short  marches,  especially  with 
all  the  forms  of  war,  are  exciting  and  instructive. 
Commendatory  orders  by  the  brigade  and  regi- 
mental commanders  for  the  neatest  regimental 
camps  and  company  streets,  and  for  the  regiment 
and  company  freest  from  preventable  disease,  en- 
courage the  better  men.  This  principle  of  com- 
mendation is  applicable  to  divisions  and  corps. 

There  are  two  great  classes  of  diseases,  the  intes- 
tinal and  the  malarial,  that  threaten  and  generally 
afflict  an  army  in  the  field  in  the  warmer  climates, 
and  in  the  American  tropics  a  third,  yellow  fever, 


198  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

that  is  greatly  to  be  dreaded.  All  of  these  are  pre- 
ventable in  the  sense  of  being  avoidable.  The 
exposures  of  field  life  are  often  followed  by  their 
txttacks,  but  they  frequently  occur  because  perfectly 
practicable  precautions  have  been  neglected.  These 
will  first  be  considered,  and  then  general  rules  for 
preserving  health,  in  addition  to  those  already  laid 
down  for  the  care  of  camps,  will  be  added. 

The  intestinal  diseases  proper  that  befall  an  army, 
especially  in  the  South,  are  temporary  looseness  of 
the  bowels,  a  debilitating  and  persistent  diarrhoea, 
and  dysentery,  acute  and  chronic,  always  serious 
and  often  dangerous.  These  all  may  occur  in  succes- 
sion in  the  same  person.  Typhoid  fever,  which  is 
apt  to  invade  and  to  spread  in  ill-kept  camps,  has  its 
main  seat  in  the  bowels  and  is  propagated  by  their 
discharges.  All  these  are  avoidable  by  mature  and 
healthy  men ;  or,  more  strictly,  they  only  occur  after 
violation  of  personal  or  general  hygiene.  The  cau- 
tions to  be  observed  by  line  officers  in  these  respects 
in  the  care  of  those  under  them  are  as  follows : 

Malarial  infection  weakens  the  natural  powers  of 
resistance  and  may  complicate  any  of  the  diseases 
mentioned.  There  is  therefore  a  particular  reason 
for  guarding  against  it,  as  will  presently  be 
described. 

As  popularly  recognized,  errors  of  diet  are  a  com- 
mon cause  of  diarrhoea.  Recruits  often  suffer  from 
diarrhoea  even  in  garrison,  simply  because  of  unac- 
customed food ;  and  all  but  seasoned  men  are  liable 
to  it  when  the  conditions  of  camp  cooking  are  first 
encountered.  If  the  food  itself  is  sound  and  is  prop- 
erly prepared,  this  will  soon  pass  away.  But  careful 


THE   CARE    OF  TROOPS   IN   THE   FIELD.  199 

and  intelligent  supervision  of  the  kitchens  and  the 
mess  is  necessary. 

Water  quite  free  from  specific  disease-causes  may 
induce  diarrhoea,  that  may  become  very  serious  in 
susceptible  persons.  Hard  water,  chiefly  from  lime 
and  magnesium  salts,  may  be  modified  by  boiling. 
But  generally  speaking,  the  system  becomes  habit- 
uated to  it,  especially  if  it  is  drank  sparingly  at  first. 
To  drink  from  alluvial  rivers  filled  with  suspended 
clay  will  induce  diarrhoea  in  unaccustomed  persons, 
and  sometimes  in  all.  Such  water  will  frequently 
become  clear  by  merely  standing  for  twenty-four 
hours  (sedimentation).  Filtering  slowly  through 
flannel  detains  much  of  the  mud,  but  the  flannel 
must  frequently  be  changed  or  washed.  Chopped 
cactus-leaves  have  a  clarifying  effect,  and  an  excel- 
lent agent  is  alum,  in  the  proportion  of  six  grains  to 
the  gallon,  stirred  in  the  water  to  carry  the  clay 
down  as  a  precipitate.  Some  such  precaution  is 
necessary  with  the  water  of  muddy  rivers.  Occa- 
sionally it  is  found  that  water  charged  with  vegetable 
debris  causes  diarrhoea,  but  is  harmless  when  filtered. 
Brackish  water  from  near  the  sea  may  cause  diar- 
rhoea, when  the  only  preventive  would  be  distillation. 
The  same  is  true  of  alkaline  water.  An  effective 
distilling  apparatus  can  be  constructed  by  the  aid 
of  a  kerosene  lamp,  a  small  metal  tank,  a  few  feet  of 
pipe,  and  a  receiving  vessel.  (See  figure.)  This  is 
not  nearly  as  complicated  as  it  appears,  and  is  very 
portable  and  inexpensive.  P  and  $,  stands,  can 
be  extemporized  in  any  camp. 

For  permanent  posts,  when  required,  the  Quarter- 
master's Department  will  supply  distilling  apparatus 


200 


NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 


on  a  large  scale,  and  for  camps  where  the  water  is 
doubtful  porcelain  filters  are  furnished.  The  latter 
are  fragile  and  need  great  care  in  their  management 
and  transportation.  Practicable  filters  of  sand  and 
gravel  in  casks  can  be  extemporized  in  the  field. 

One  but  not  the  sole  cause  of  dysentery,  very 
serious  and  very  common  in  the  tropics,  is  water 
polluted  with  excremental  matter,  and  particularly 


A ,  tin  boiler.  S,  P,  stands. 

B,  tin  funnel-top.  ab,  condensing  plates,  pressed  tin. 

C,  sleeve  of  2-in.  pipe  D.  a,  one  inch  deep;    6,  three    inches 
E,  jar,  preferably  earthen.  deep. 

A  1-inch  tube  3  inches  long  is  soldered  to  the  top  of  a,  and  a  tube   2 
inches  long,  to  slide  into  the  other,  is  soldered  to  the  bottom  of  6. 

If  A  is  17  inches  square  each  perpendicular  inch  will  contain  one  gallon. 
From  the  design  of  Major  Alfred  E.  Sears,  by  the  courtesy  of  The 
Medical  Record. 

with  the  discharges  from  a  previous  case.  Once  in- 
troduced it  is  liable  to  become  epidemic ;  hence  special 
pains  should  be  taken  to  guard  the  water  from  the 
very  beginning,  to  avoid  old  camp-grounds,  and  occa- 
sionally to  occupy  a  new  site.  Where  the  purity  of 
the  water  is  maintained,  much  freedom  from  this 
disease  is  assured.  Where  the  water  is  impure  or 
even  doubtful,  every  drop  drank  or  used  with  food 


\ 

THE   CARE    OXTROOI>S   IN   THE*' FIELD.  201 

should  be  boiled,  whether  in  camp  or  while  march- 
ing. With  fairly  disciplined  troops  this  is  perfectly 
feasible. 

Both  typhoid  fever  and  dysentery  may,  however, 
be  propagated  by  minute  particles  of  excreta,  or  the 
bacteria  from  them,  attached  to  food  or  driven  as 
dust  into  the  mouth.  Hence  scrupulous  police  care 
should  be  enforced  within  the  habitable  limits  of  the 
camp  and  upon  its  confines.  It  is  certain  that  the 
painless  diarrhoea  of  the  unrecognized  first  stage  of 
true  typhoid  fever  is  infective.  Therefore  these  are 
reasons  additional  to  those  of  abstract  cleanliness  for 
the  careful  control  of  all  evacuations. 

Tropical  dysentery  is  very  persistent  and  readily 
reasserts  itself.  A  convalescent  therefrom  is  not 
fit  for  the  field  until  long  after  he  seems  to  be  well. 
Typhoid  fever  disqualifies  a  soldier  for  at  least  three 
months,  on  account  of  changes  in  some  of  the  inner 
organs.  Company  officers  should  always  be  pre- 
pared to  lose  the  services  of  such  men  for  prolonged 
periods. 

The  malarial  diseases  are  represented  by  the  inter- 
mittent fevers,  from  the  common  ague  to  the  crush- 
ing pernicious  or  congestive  chill  that  destroys  life  at 
a  single  blow;  by  the  remittent  or  bilious  fevers, 
from  those  familiar  to  most  residents  of  the  central 
states  to  the  Chagres  and  jungle  fevers  of  the  tropics ; 
and  by  complications  of  various  other  well-known 
diseases.  In  the  tropics  these  are  most  prevalent  in 
the  spring  and  autumn,  the  maximum  coinciding 
with  the  close  of  the  rainy  season. 

The  efficient  cause  of  malarial  disease  is  a  plas- 
modium  which,  in  various  forms,  infects  the  blood. 


202  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

This  has  not  yet  been  isolated  outside  of  the  human 
body,  except  in  a  genus  of  the  mosquito  (anopheles) 
which  acts  as  an  intermediate  host  and  transfers  it 
from  man  to  man.  This  is  a  demonstrated  fact,  and 
completely  accounts  for  all  the  presumed  methods  of 
its  spread  formerly  accepted,  except  possibly  its  ab- 
sorption in  drinking  water.  Those  most  susceptible 
to  its  action  are  the  weary,  hungry,  and  ill-condi- 
tioned, and  those  weakened  by  excesses.  If  the 
possibility  of  drinking  infected  water  be  rejected, 
and  there  is  no  positive  evidence  that  the  disease 
may  be  communicated  in  that  way,  the  prevention 
of  malaria  in  the  field  is  summed  up  in  the  exclusion 
of  the  mosquito.  In  its  final  expression  this  is  by 
the  use  of  nets  or  of  some  deterrent  application. 
Contributing  measures  are  such  as  these :  In  selecting 
a  dry  site  for  a  camp ;  in  encamping  to  the  windward 
of  marshes;  in  avoiding  unnecessary  exposure  after 
the  sun  sets  and  until  it  has  well  risen;  in  being 
reasonably  clothed,  especially  during  sleep,  with 
light  woollen  or  merino,  or  at  least  loosely-woven 
cotton;  in  having  the  floor  of  the  tent  or  sleeping- 
place  raised  several  feet  from  the  ground,  which  is 
practicable  in  permanent  camps,  and  is  important, 
but  is  rarely  done;  in  drinking  only  water  that  has 
been  boiled,  which  is  particularly  important  and 
easily  arranged ;  in  supplying  the  men  on  night  duty 
with  hot  food,  such  as  oatmeal  gruel,  early  in  the 
evening,  and  with  hot  coffee  and  hard  bread  near 
midnight  and  again  near  dawn ;  and  in  the  system- 
atic preventive  use  of  quinine  for  those  particularly 
exposed,  and  c"  curative  doses  on  the  slightest  sus- 
picion of  a  malarial  invasion.  All  of  these  precau- 


THE   CARE   OF   TROOPS  IN   THE   FIELD.  203 

tions  cannot  be  taken  in  the  immediate  presence  of 
the  enemy,  against  whom  military  operations  of 
attack  or  defence  may  be  of  primary  importance; 
but  it  is  astonishing  how  much  that  is  preventive 
may  be  done  ordinarily  by  systematic  and  intelligent 
forethought.  The  delay  of  a  few  nights  in  a  highly 
malarious  region  may  weaken  an  army  more  than 
a  sharp  engagement.  Even  where  the  locality  is 
not  "  pernicious "  in  the  technical  sense,  prolonged 
residence  in  an  unhealthy  situation  depresses  the 
men  physically  and  morally  by  the  resulting  sickness 
and  death.  For  instance,  it  is  probable  that  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  notwithstanding  it  compelled 
a  bloodless  evacuation,  lost  more  men  during  the 
month  it  lay  in  front  of  York  town  in  the  spring  of 
1862,  and  subsequently  as  a  consequence  of  that 
camp,  than  would  have  fallen  under  an  immediate 
assault. 

Other  precautions  that  always  may  be  taken  are: 
Every  soldier  may  wear  a  light  woollen  suit  next 
to  the  skin.  That  is  a  matter  of  equipment  first  and 
of  discipline  afterward.  It  is  useless  to  supply  men 
with  heavy  woollen  underwear  in  a  hot  climate  and 
to  expect  it  to  be  worn.  It  becomes  insufferable, 
and  will  be  abandoned  or  destroyed.  The  tempta- 
tion with  ill-disciplined  troops  is  to  do  the  same  even 
with  very  light  flannel;  but,  partly  by  explanation 
and  partly  by  rigid  discipline,  they  may  be  held  to  it 
until  it  is  worn  willingly.  Its  habitual  use,  espe- 
cially at  night,  relieves  the  body  from  the  risk  of 
debilitating  chill. 

To  drink  only  water  that  has  been  well  and  com- 
paratively recently  boiled.     Water  for  a  company 


204  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

may  be  boiled  wherever  a  camp-kettle  can  be  carried ; 
and  every  man  can  boil  his  own  allowance  whenever 
he  can  make  an  individual  fire  for  his  own  cup.  A 
zealous  captain  will  see  that  his  n:en  actually  fill 
their  canteens  with  boiled  water  before  they  fall  in 
for  the  march,  and  that  while  in  camp  or  bivouac  they 
drink  none  that  is  raw.  Well-made  tea  (where  water 
that  has  boiled  must  be  used)  or  boiled  coffee  is  still 
more  acceptable,  and  men  should  be  encouraged  to 
carry  tea  or  coffee  (in  a  vial  for  economy)  and  to  boil 
the  water  in  their  own  cups  on  making  camp.  A 
canteen  of  tea  is  more  desirable  than  one  of  plain 
water.  The  object  in  drinking  only  boiled  water  is 
the  exclusion  of  any  other  depressing  pollution, 
quite  regardless  of  the  possible  presence  of  the  mala- 
rial plasmodium  or  its  antecedent.  But  "it  is  re- 
garded as  not  impossible  that  the  drinking  of  water 
contaminated  by  these  insects  [mosquitoes]  .  .  .  may 
have  a  part  in  the  dissemination T>  [of  malarial  fever]. 
(Harrington.)  To  boil  the  water  devitalizes  the 
plasmodium. 

When  deprived  of  the  conveniences  of  camp,  as 
here  supposed,  preventive  doses  of  quinine  should 
not  only  be  dispensed  but  administered,  and  that 
without  whiskey.  It  is  as  absurd  to  campaign  within 
range  of  malaria  without  using  quinine  as  it  would  be 
to  go  into  battle  without  ammunition.  But  the  use 
of  alcohol  before  or  during  such  exposure  opens  the 
system  to  its  attack.  Hot  and  tolerably  strong 
coffee  is  an  excellent  tonic  under  such  conditions. 

The  foregoing  represents  nearly  everything  that 
can  be  done  under  those  emergencies  which  compel 
active  movements  in  malarial  tracts. 


THE    CARE  OF   TROOPS   IN   THE    FIELD.  205 

Yellow  fever  is  now  believed  to  be  transmitted 
from  man  to  man  by  the  agency  of  the  mosquito 
(Stegomyia  fasciata),  precisely  as  the  malarial  dis- 
ease is  spread  by  the  anopheles.  It  is  not  known  to 
be  propagated  in  any  other  way,  and  the  disease-cause 
has  not  yet  been  discovered  outside  of  man  and  this 
insect.  Hence  protection  from  it  consists  in  avoid- 
ing the  infected  mosquito,  and  its  prevention  is  con- 
cerned with  destroying,  primarily,  all  the  insects 
thus  contaminated  and,  secondarily,  those  capable 
of  becoming  an  intermediate  host.  The  Army  Com- 
mission under  Major  Reed  appears  to  have  deter- 
mined definitely  that  everything  outside  of  these  liv- 
ing bodies  may  be  disregarded.  The  incubation  in 
man  does  not  exceed  five  days.  Therefore  any  well 
man  may  be  admitted  from  an  infected  district  with- 
out fear  after  that  period  of  isolation  has  elapsed.  The 
infected  mosquito  requires  twelve  days  for  the  infec- 
tion to  develop.  It  follows  that  all  mosquitoes  that 
have  not  been  in  contact  with  a  yellow-fever  case  for 
a  little  more  than  twelve  days  are  harmless.  But 
once  infected,  it  is  believed  that  the  insect  may  cause 
the  disease  for  an  almost  indefinite  time,  certainly 
after  a  period  of  prolonged  hibernation.  In  the  field 
yellow  fever,  having  occurred,  will  ravage  a  non- 
immune  command  while  it  remains  where  the  dis- 
ease appeared.  Ultimate  military  success  will  there- 
fore best  be  attained  by  effectually  avoiding  places 
known  to  be  infected.  Even  in  the  tropics  the 
removal  of  an  infected  command  from  bodies  of 
water  and  to  a  height  of  1000  feet  will  often  check 
the  epidemic.  In  more  temperate  climates  to  trans- 
fer the  troops,  frequently  only  twenty  or  thirty 


206  NOTES   ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

miles,  into  a  drier  and  somewhat  higher  atmosphere 
will  generally  cause  the  disease  to  cease.  In  both 
cases  presumably  this  is  because  the  Stegomyia  does 
not  breed  there,-  although  such  local  exemption  has 
not  yet  been  demonstrated.  Should  the  command 
remain  stationary  after  the  disease  appears,  every 
man  who  has  not  previously  had  it  will  certainly  be 
attacked  as  long  as  infecting  mosquitoes  can  reach 
him.  The  accession  of  frost  sets  the  only  natural 
limitation  to  their  ravages.  The  mortality  from 
yellow  fever  is  always  high,  and  men  broken  by 
excess,  especially  alcoholics,  almost  certainly  suc- 
cumb when  attacked.  It  is  the  true  policy,  when- 
ever practicable,  to  manoeuvre  oneself  out  of  and  the 
enemy  into  the  yellow-fever  region.  Both  malarial- 
and  yellow-fever  cases  are  always  to  be  regarded  as 
infecting  centres,  not  to  be  avoided  by  the  well  for 
fear  of  direct  infection,  but  to  be  protected  by  netting 
and  otherwise  from  those  insects  that  imbibe,  de- 
velop, and  transmit  such  infection. 

Independently  of  specific  causes  of  diseases  as 
noted  above,  there  are  other  avoidable  conditions 
which  frequently  lead  to  illness  in  warm  climates. 
One  of  the  most  important  is  the  effect  of  heat  and 
cold,  and  particularly  changes  from  one  to  the  other, 
in  causing  diarrhoea  and  dysentery.  Men  become 
chilled  at  night,  or  by  the  evaporation  of  perspira- 
tion after  exertion,  when  the  bowels  soon  suffer. 
Systematic  a  ttention  to  so  simple  a  matter  as  insuring 
that  men  are  properly  covered  at  night  is  important. 
Young  soldiers,  and  particularly  those  unaccus- 
tomed to  camp,  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  care 
for  themselves,  but  the  captain  who  makes  sure  that 


THE    CARE    OF   TROOPS   IN   THE   FIELD.  207 

his  men  are  thus  protected  will  be  certain  of  a  stronger 
and  more  willing  command.  The  bowels  lie  so  near 
the  wall  of  the  abdomen  that  the  circulation  there, 
on  whose  disturbance  this  form  of  diarrhoea  pri- 
marily depends,  is  easily  deranged  by  changes  of 
temperature. 

The  cummerbund  of  the  Asiatics  and  the  cholera 
belt  of  Eastern  travellers,  evolved  by  experience,  are 
intended  to  equalize  the  abdominal  circulation. 
More  convenient  than  these  and  more  efficient  is  a 
flannel  apron,  of  one  or  two  thicknesses,  from  14  to 
18  inches  in  width  and  from  6  to  8  in  depth,  tied  by  a 
tape  around  the  .waist  and  worn  directly  next  the 
skin.  This  apron  is  quite  different  from  the  official 
belt  that  has  been  issued,  which  is  apt,  when  it  is 
unwillingly  worn,  to  become  an  ineffectual  and 
annoying  roll  about  the  waist.  It  lies  in  place,  is 
easily  tolerated,  and  generally  prevents  or  controls 
the  simple  diarrhoea  or  light  dysentery  of  either  hot 
or  cold  climates  that  depends  upon  disturbances  of 
the  local  circulation.  The  apron  is  not  issued  by  the 
government,  but  it  is  procurable,  and  every  com- 
manding officer  in  hot  climates  should  insist  that 
his  men  are  provided  with  two  apiece,  and  should 
verify  by  irregular  inspections  that  one  of  them  is 
constantly  worn.  To  some  officers  such  attention 
to  the  individual  men  as  is  implied  in  these  para- 
graphs does  not  appeal.  But  to  those  who  remem- 
ber how  frequently  soldiers  are  exposed  to  illness, 
partly  from  ignorance  and  partly  from  helplessness, 
this  form  of  duty  becomes  a  pleasure  that  meets  a 
most  effectual  reward. 

One  of  the  direct  effects  of  extreme  heat  is  sun- 


208  NOTES    ON    MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

stroke,  or  heat-exhaustion,  and  when  high  tempera- 
ture is  long  continued  there  is  a  general  depression 
quite  independent  of  such  direct  causes  as  the  mala- 
rial or  other  poisons.  The  head  covering  should  be 
light  in  weight  and  in  color,  be  permeable  to  the  air, 
and  have  an  air-space  all  around  as  well  as  above  the 
head.  When  directly  exposed  to  the  sun,  a  wet  sponge 
or  wet  muslin  worn  in  the  crown  lessens  the  risk. 
Experience  shows  that  the  second  great  nervous  cen- 
tre, the  spinal  cord,  should  not  be  exposed  directly 
to  the  sun  for  a  length  of  time.  All  the  clothing 
should  be  loose,  especially  about  the  neck  and  chest, 
and  the  pack  that  may  require  to  be  borne  should 
stand  away  from  the  body.  The  general  depression 
from  long-continued  heat  is  intensified  in  a  moist 
climate  by  imperfect  ventilation. 

As  the  companies  fall  in  for  a  march  or  similar 
duty,  inspection  of  canteens  should  show  them  filled 
with  pure  water,  preferably  boiled,  or  weak  tea.  In 
temperate  climates  men  should  be  discouraged  from 
drinking  en  route.  Once  begun,  the  almost  irresist- 
ible temptation  is  to  drink  frequently  and  then  to 
replenish  the  canteen  from  the  nearest  water  regard- 
less of  quality.  The  sensation  of  ordinary  thirst 
arises  from  dryness  of  the  fauces,  and  if  these  are 
moistened  by  the  saliva  excited  by  chewing  there  is 
great  relief.  To  that  end  it  is  better  to  supply  the 
system  by  a  reasonable  draught  of  water  before  start- 
ing, and  to  keep  a  pebble  or  a  bit  f  wood  in  the 
mouth  to  excite  moisture,  but  not  to  drink  a  drop, 
except  there  may  be  a  halt  for  luncheon,  until  the 
camp  for  the  day  is  in  sight.  In  the  tropics  this  rule 
must  be  somewhat  modified,  for  too  great  loss  of 


THE    CARE    OF   TROOPS   HST    THE    FIELD.  209 

fluid  by  perspiration  predisposes  to  heat  prostration, 
and  a  part  of  the  liquid  must  be  replaced.  But 
whatever  is  drank  while  marching  should  be  limited 
in  amount  and  be  taken  at  considerable  intervals, 
and  the  men  should  be  particularly  cautioned  against 
drinking  much  early  on  the  way.  Exact  and  arbi- 
trary control  over  the  use  of  the  canteen  is  imprac- 
ticable and  would  be  unwise,  but  through  their  non- 
commissioned officers  the  privates  must  constantly 
be  instructed,  until  from  reason  and  experience  the 
habit  of  abstinence  is  acquired  and  they  learn  that 
tropical  water  must  be  boiled. 

But,  as  Smart  points  out,  under  a  blazing  tropical 
sun  a  fulminant  heat-stroke  is  better  avoided  by 
using  a  stinted  but  steady  supply  than  by  drink- 
ing copiously  with  a  period  of  enforced  abstinence 
following. 

The  question  of  diet  in  an  unaccustomed  climate  is 
a  vexed  one.  It  is  a  good  general  rule  to  follow  the 
habits  of  intelligent  natives  without  changing  too 
suddenly  from  the  usual  food.  All  food  in  hot 
climates  is  prone  to  decay,  but  nothing  should  be 
eaten  that  is  open  to  suspicion.  Natives  frequently 
consume  decomposing  food  with  impunity,  and  in 
that  respect  their  example  is  not  to  be  followed. 
When  ripe  and  perfectly  sound,  fruit  is  generally 
unobjectionable;  but  within  the  tropics  the  least  spot 
upon  it  indicating  decay  should  condemn  the  whole. 
The  difficulty  of  enforcing  this  rule  with  soldiers 
leads  to  the  more  general  one  of  forbidding  all  fruit. 
This  is  not  a  necessity,  but  is  an  effort  to  avoid  a 
frequent  evil. 

Alcohol  in  any  form  and  to  any  degree  as  a  bever- 


210  NOTES    ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

age  is  harmful,  and  when  taken  beyond  moderation 
is  dangerous.  It  is  true  the  world  over  that  a  drunken 
camp  is  a  sickly  camp,  and  in  hot  climates  drinking, 
even  short  of  excess,  tends  directly  to  disease. 

Properly  to  conduct  a  march  requires  experience, 
or  a  greater  attention  to  theory  than  frequently  is 
given.  Except  the  necessity  be  very  pressing,  the 
first  march  with  troops  unseasoned  in  marching,  how- 
ever well  they  may  be  drilled  otherwise,  should  be  but 
a  very  few  miles,  barely  enough  to  clear  the  old 
camps,  for  at  the  outset  there  is  friction  everywhere. 
Each  day's  march  may  be  gradually  increased  until 
in  about  a  fortnight  the  maximum  will  be  reached. 
By  this  gradual  development  much  better  results  can 
be  secured  in  a  given  time  than  would  be  were  a 
specified  distance  equally  divided  through  a  given 
number  of  days.  Every  eight  or  ten  days  besides 
Sundays  there  should  be  a  halt  for  rest  and  repairs. 
Under  pressure  seasoned  infantry  will  make  almost 
incredible  distances  and  great  speed,  as  witness 
Crawfurd's  Light  Division  in  the  Peninsular  War 
and  "Stonewall"  Jackson's  command  in  our  Civil 
War.  Enthusiastic  cavalrymen  are  unwilling  to 
admit  it,  but  it  appears  true  that  seasoned  infantry 
will  outmarch  mounted  troops  in  a  long  compaign. 
Good  marching  is  the  complement  of  good  fighting, 
and  the  most  famous  and  effective  troops  are  those 
that  reach  the  objective  the  soonest;  but  no  troops 
can  march  their  best  until  they  are  taught.  The 
ease  with  which  troops  march  is  inversely  to  the  size 
of  the  command;  thus  a  regiment  moves  more  eas- 
ily than  a  division,  a  division  better  than  a  corps. 
Over  good  roads  fourteen  miles  in  ten  hours  is  good 


THE   CARE    OF   TROOPS   IN    THE    FIELD.  211 

marching  for  a  large  army,  but  a  regiment  will  easily 
make  that  distance  in  four  hours  including  halts. 
Infantry  and  mounted  troops  should  not  march 
together  if  it  can  be  avoided,  and  infantry  should 
march  with  as  wide  a  front  and  in  as  open  order  as 
possible,  for  crowd-poisoning  follows  the  collection 
of  dirty,  heated  men  out  of  doors  as  well  as  within 
houses.  After  the  first  few  regiments,  troops  almost 
invariably  march  in  dust  or  mud,  and  close  order  is 
very  distressing.  With  a  large  command,  if  it  is 
possible  to  move  troops  in  columns  parallel  to  the 
roads  so  as  to  leave  these  free  for  the  trains,  it  should 
always  be  done,  for  it  is  a  great  comfort  to  have  the 
wagons  at  hand  when  camp  is  made.  Unless  the 
command  is  very  small,  the  men  should  be  required 
to  pay  no  attention  to  the  minor  obstacles  of  mud, 
water,  and  the  like ;  for  hesitation  in  the  leading  files 
is  magnified  into  serious  halts  at  the  rear,  and  a  jerky 
progress  is  very  trying.  But  it  is  an  economy  of 
time  to  have  fallen  trees  that  partly  obstruct  the  way 
entirely  removed.  Under  the  best  circumstances 
even  good  troops  will  lose  distance,  and  frequent 
halts  are  necessary  or  the  rear  will  be  in  a  state  of 
perpetual  worry  in  the  effort  to  close  up.  No  par- 
ticular command  should  be  moved  on  until  it  is  well 
closed  up  in  the  rear  and  the  rear  ranks  have  rested. 
The  first  halt  would  better  be  at  the  end  of  half  an 
hour,  and  be  used  by  the  men  in  relieving  them- 
selves and  adjusting  their  clothes  and  their  burdens. 
There  should  be  a  halt  for  five  or  ten  minutes  (as 
prescribed)  at  the  end  of  every  subsequent  hour, 
when  the  men  should  be  encouraged  to  spread  out 
and  rest,  but  never  be  allowed  to  straggle  from  the 


212  .NOTES   ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 


column  for  any  purpose.  The  length  of  all  occa- 
sional halts  when  foreseen  should  be  announced  at 
the  beginning  and  passed  down  the  column ,  for  un- 
certainty destroys  much  of  the  benefit  of  the  rest. 
Even  in  those  accidental  stops  that  occur  in  every 
column,  should  the  regimental  or  other  commanders 
take  pains  to  discover  the  probable  delay  and  com- 
municate it  by  special  signal  in  order  that  the  men 
might  rest,  their  strength  and  temper  would  be  much 
conserved.  Few  conditions  are  more  trying  to  men 
under  arms  than  to  await  on  their  feet  an  uncertain 
advance.  The  French  use  a  device  to  save  time  in 
resuming  the  march  and  to  keep  the  men  out  of  the 
mud,  where  squads  of  twenty  or  thirty  form  a  circle 
and  each  man  sits  on  the  knees  of  the  man  in  rear. 
At  formal  halts  to  get  the  full  advantage  of  rest  the 
men  should  lie  flat  on  their  backs  with  their  belts 
loosened,  but  with  a  poncho  or  some  other  protection 
between  their  bodies  and  damp  ground. 

Straggling,  the  loitering  behind  of  the  sick,  the 
tired,  the  lazy,  the  ill-disciplined,  is  an  evil  indirectly 
affecting  the  health  and  the  morale,  and  directly  con- 
cerning the  military  vigor  of  the  column.  Its  pre- 
vention, so  far  as  those  out  of  health  are  concerned, 
depends  upon  the  prompt  and  rigid  scrutiny  by  the 
medical  officers  of  all  who  fall  out  claiming  to  be  sick 
and  their  immediate  disposition.  All  not  adjudged 
sick  should  be  promptly  returned  to  the  ranks  or,  in 
common  with  the  other  stragglers,  be  taken  in  charge 
by  the  provost  guard.  It  is  better  that  those  really 
unfit  should  be  provided  with  a  formal  ticket  describ- 
ing them,  naming  their  presumed  disability  and  dis- 
tinctly defining  from  what  they  are  excused.  Such 


THE   CARE   OP   TROOPS   IN   THE    FIELD.  213 

details,  however,  may  safely  be  left  to  the  administra- 
tion of  the  medical  department.  But  any  man  out 
of  ranks  without  the  written  permission  of  his  com- 
pany commander  on  a  prearranged  card  should  be 
assumed  a  straggler,  unless  showing  prima  fade  evi- 
dence of  illness.  Men  fairly  tired  out  will  often  be 
brought  up  fresh  at  the  end  of  a  few  hours7  transpor- 
tation, but  this  privilege  is  so  liable  to  abuse  that  it 
should  rarely  be  given.  But  the  really  ill  are  to  be 
carefully  carried,  for  with  good  troops  one  should 
take  the  most  thoughtful  care  of  them,  because  then 
they  will  put  forth  their  best  efforts  in  the  belief  that 
they  will  be  protected  and  restored  when  disabled. 
For  this  reason,  among  others,  it  is  important  that 
its  ambulance-train  should  immediately  follow  each 
division.  Under  exceptional  circumstances  one  or 
more  ambulances  should  accompany  each  brigade. 

The  music  of  the  fife  and  drum  is  of  material  assist- 
ance to  a  tired  column,  and  even  the  steady  drum 
tap  alone  helps  the  pace  of  the  weary.  The  men 
should  always  be  encouraged  to  sing  on  the  march, 
for  the  more  cheerful  a  command  the  more  easily  it 
moves. 

It  is  usually  an  error  to  break  camp  before  day,  as 
is  sometimes  done,  and  night  marches  are  to  be 
avoided  if  possible.  In  non-malarious  regions  in  hot 
weather  an  occasional  night  march  under  a  light 
moon  is  a  relief,  but  as  a  rule  the  loss  of  sleep  and  the 
general  discomfort  thus  caused  outbalance  any  ordi- 
nary advantage.  Should  a  military  necessity  com- 
pel a  night  march  in  a  malarious  region,  a  preventive 
dose  of  quinine  ought  to  be  administered  to  every 
one  involved,  as  would  be  done  in  other  night  duty. 


214  NOTES    ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

In  a  very  hot  climate  marches  should  be  so  regulated 
that  the  sun  may  not  shine  directly  on  the  men's 
backs,  because  extreme  heat  on  the  spinal  column  is 
harmful.  This  is  important  and  frequently  has  been 
neglected. 

In  conclusion,  it  must  always  be  remembered  that 
men  abruptly  transferred  from  civil  life  to  the  field 
have  new  and  artificial  circumstances  to  which  to 
adapt  themselves,  and  in  proportion  as  their  own 
freedom  of  action  is  restrained  does  the  responsibility 
of  the  officers  in  direct  command  increase.  That 
responsibility  is  not  limited  to  instruction  in  drill, 
but  runs,  coequal  with  their  authority,  over  every 
condition  and  detail  of  military  life.  The  care  of 
troops  is  a  serious  and  constant  matter  of  daily  duty, 
which  may  be  neglected  but  cannot  be  evaded;  and 
as  a  rule  the  proportion  of  men  presenting  them- 
selves as  sick  is  an  index  of  the  intelligence  and  fidel- 
ity with  which  that  duty  is  discharged.  For,  re- 
duced to  its  final  expression,  the  efficiency  of  a  com- 
mand is  measured  by  the  intelligent  care  that  has 
been  bestowed  upon  it. 


X. 

ADDENDA. 

Asepsis  as  Applied  to  Wounds. 

In  addition  to  the  mechanical  injury  inflicted  by  a 
bullet,  the  wound  is  liable  to  inflammation  and  dis- 
charge. That  was  formerly  regarded  as  necessary 
after  gunshot.  It  is  now  known  that  the  inflamma- 
tion is  incited  by  the  presence  of  infinitesimal  forms 
of  life  called  bacteria.  These  prevail  on  the  surface 
of  all  substances,  animate  and  inanimate,  not  made 
aseptic  by  special  treatment,  and  invariably  are 
introduced  in  wounds  when  probed  or  handled  on 
the  field..  If  they  are  excluded,  most  wounds  not 
fatal  in  themselves  can  be  treated  successfully.  But 
usually  wounds  become  infected  before  a  medical 
officer  sees  them.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
for  the  men  to  understand  tnat  tnere  should  be  no 
interference  even  with  the  surface  of  any  wound, 
but  that  it  should  be  immediately  covered  with  the 
preventive  dressing  that  every  soldier  carries.  If 
that  is  done  at  once,  and  the  hand,  the  clothing,  and 
other  foreign  matters  are  kept  away,  there  is  a  fair 
prospect  of  recovery  in  those  cases  that  are  not 
by  their  very  nature  and  degree  immediately  fatal. 
This  doctrine  of  non-interference  and  of  aseptic 
dressing  should  be  taught  at  every  opportunity. 

The  first-aid  packet,  which  is  part  of  the  equip- 

215 


216  NOTES   ON   MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

ment  of  every  soldier,  contains  all  that  is  necessary 
for  the  immediate  care  of  any  wound  that  is  not  com- 
plicated with  severe  haemorrhage  or  with  the  fracture 
of  a  large  bone.  The  experience  of  late  wars  shows 
that  not  only  much  surgical  illness  and  suffering 
have  been  avoided,  but  many  lives  have  been  saved, 
by  the  immediate  application  of  those  dressings  as 
directed,  and  by  abstention  from  interference  before 
or  afterward.  Foreign  bodies  are  kept  out,  so  that 
the  natural  processes  of  healing  begin  and  go  on 
without  interruption.  The  results  expected  to  fol- 
low that  simple  procedure  are  so  remarkable  that 
the  average  soldier  is  incredulous  that  they  will 
occur.  He  thinks  that  something  more  should  be 
done  at  the  time,  and  he  fails  to  recognize  the  im- 
portance of  the  plain  instruction  to  apply  these 
sterilized  dressings  and  to  abstain  from  meddling. 
On  this  account  the  primary  treatment  and  the 
consecutive  non-interference  should  be  a  matter  of 
formal  and  peremptory  military  precept  from  the 
company  officers,  as  well  as  of  general  explanation 
from  the  medical  officers. 

The  natural  ignorance  on  the  soldier's  part  of  the 
real  value  of  the  first-aid  packets,  and  his  scep- 
ticism as  to  their  importance  even  when  that  is  ex- 
plained, as  well  perhaps  as  the  readiness  with  which 
they  are  replaced  gratuitously  when  lost  or  destroyed, 
lead  him  to  think  lightly  of  keeping  them  intact,  or 
indeed  of  keeping  them  at  all.  They  are  acceptable 
as  wash-cloths  and  convenient  for  gun-rags,  and 
where  there  is  not  reasonable  discipline  very  many 
of  them  are  wasted  in  that  way.  Besides,  enormous 
numbers  have  been  spoiled  in  tropical  field  service 


ASEPSIS.  217 

through  humidity  and  by  friction  against  other 
objects.  When  the  moderately  water-proof  cover- 
ing is  damaged,  the  usefulness  of  the  packet  is  dimin- 
ished if  not  estroyed.  The  remedy  is  not  merely 
to  assign  the  packet  to  a  defined  position  in  a  proper 
receptacle,  so  that  it  will  always  be  carried  by  the 
man  in  the  same  place  and  may  be  found  readily,  but 
also  to  hold  the  soldier  to  the  same  responsibility 
for  it  that  he  has  for  other  public  property,  and  to 
verify  its  presence  and  its  good  condition  by  fre- 
quent formal  inspections.  When  the  soldier  habit- 
ually regards  it  as  public  property  for  which  there 
is  accountability,  and  not  as  a  personal  perquisite, 
he  will  pay  it  more  respect. 


SCHEME  FOR  A  SANITARY  INSPECTION  BY 
COMPANY  OFFICERS. 

In  Garrison. 

Squad-room:  Capacity  and  permissible  number 
of  occupants  according  to  the  sanitary  standard. 
Number  who  slept  in  the  squad-room  last  night. 
Maximum  number  present  at  any  time  since  last 
inspection,  with  date. 

Floor-space  per  bunk. 

Air-space  per  occupant,  disregarding  height  above 
14  feet  and  taking  account  of  objects  in  the  apart- 
ment. 

Illumination,  natural:  Arrangement  and  suffi- 
ciency. 

Illumination,  artificial:  Method;  number  of  lights; 
sufficiency  for  comfort;  influence  upon  the  air. 

Sunlight:  Does  direct  sunlight  reach  all  parts  of 
the  room  at  some  time  of  the  day?  If  not,  explain. 

Heating:  Method;  relation  to  comfort  of  inmates; 
to  air,  by  escape  of  CO  or  otherwise. 

Ventilation:  Style  and  sufficiency.  Observe  care- 
fully at  irregular  intervals,  and  especially  at  night, 
whether  the  openings  remain  unobstructed.  Is  the 
whole  room  air-swept  daily? 

Odor:  Note  the  degree  of  odor,. if  any,  soon  after 
midnight  and  again  before  dawn,  and  the  state  of 
the  ventilating  apparatus  then. 

Bunks  and  bedding:  Inspect  minutely  some  par- 
ticular bunk  for  general  cleanliness,  and  especially 
for  freedom  from  vermin;  inspect  several  for  objects 
under  the  pillow  or  mattress,  as  soiled  clothes,  food, 
tobacco.  Examine  the  under  side  of  an  occasional 


SANITARY  INSPECTION- BY  COMPANY  OFFICERS.   219 

mattress  for  dust.  How  frequently  and  completely 
is  the  bedding  exposed  out  of  doors? 

Cuspidors:    Kind,  number,  and  condition. 

Floors:  Are  they  clean  and  dry?  How  are  they 
habitually  cleansed?  Are  they  ever  damp? 

Walls  and  ceilings:  Are  they  clean  and  unstained 
by  smoke  or  otherwise?  When  were  they  lime- 
washed,  or  they  and  the  woodwork  painted?  Ex- 
amine corners,  the  tops  of  the  lower  sashes,  and 
behind  boxes. 

Lockers:  Examine,  not  merely  for  order,  but  for 
dust  or  dirt  and  odor. 

Clothing  not  on  the  person:  Is  the  uniform  clean? 
Is  the  underclothing  clean,  or  properly  set  apart  for 
the  wash?  Examine  carefully  the  soles  of  spare 
shoes.  No  shoe  should  bring  in  dirt  from  out  of 
doors. 

Clothing  on  the  person:  Open  the  coats,  examine 
the  shirt,  undershirt,  and  the  surface  of  the  chest; 
examine  one  foot  bare  and  the  stocking  on  the  other 
foot;  expose  and  inspect  the  lower  part  of  the 
drawers;  are  the  head  and  neck  and  the  inside 
of  the  cap  clean?  are  the  hair  and  beard  closely 
trimmed?  (Excuse  non-commissioned  officers  from 
this  personal  inspection.) 

Flies :  If  there  are  many  flies,  determine  the  reason. 
(Flies  imply  the  presence  of  organic  debris.) 

Mosquitoes:  Are  there  adequate  nets?  Are  they 
used? 

At  a  formal  inspection  insist  that  everything 
commonly  in  the  squad-room  is  in  place.  Allow 
neither  necessary  nor  extra  articles  to  be  hidden — 
"put  away  on  account  of  inspection." 

Examine  every  occupied  room,  especially  those  of 
the  cooks  if  they  sleep  out  of  the  squad-room,  in  the 
same  manner. 

Examine  attic  and  general  store-rooms  cursorily, 
to  see  that  no  improper  articles,  as  food  or  soiled 
clothes,  are  concealed  there. 

Mess-room:    Examine  it  and  the  table  furniture, 


220  NOTES   ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 

including  the  under  side  of  the  table  if  it  is  reversible, 
for  cleanliness.  Inspect  carefully  the  insides  of  the 
howls  and  the  tines  of  the  forks.  Examine  also 
table  furniture  not  actually  upon  the  table,  and  the 
floors  and  windows,  all  for  cleanliness. 

Water-coolers  and  pitchers:  Examine  the  interiors 
carefully,  wherever  found. 

Kitchen:  The  interior  of  all  cooking  utensils 
should  be  scrupulously  clean.  Examine  floors,  walls, 
tables,  and  plumbing,  including  grease  trap,  if  any. 
Knives,  cleavers,  strainers,  should  be  free  from 
debris.  Examine  the  interior  of  refrigerator  daily. 
Inspect  for  roaches  about  range  and  slop-sink.  Ex- 
amine all  food,  whether  cooking  or  in  store.  Espe- 
cially in  hot  climates,  see  that  no  food  is  decompos- 
ing. Observe  carefully  the  presence  of  flies. 

Cellar:  Inspect  for  dryness,  ventilation,  freedom 
from  odor,  and  for  condition  of  contents. 

Grounds:  Inspect  those  immediately  around  the 
barracks  and  under  the  verandas,  as  for  general 
police  and  for  dryness.  Where  there  is  no  cellar, 
determine  the  condition  under  the  building. 

Garbage  barrels  or  boxes:  How  frequently,  how 
completely,  and  in  what  manner  is  the  garbage  dis- 
posed of?  Is  the  neighboring  ground  polluted? 
Follow  up  in  detail  the  disposal  of  waste. 

Sinks  and  urinals:  What  disposition  is  made  of 
body  waste?  Inspect  carefully  and  frequently  for 
interior  and  exterior  cleanliness.  If  the  sinks  or 
urinals  give  out  odor,  ascertain  the  cause  and  pre- 
sent a  remedy.  -  If  urine  is  voided  in  unauthorized 
places,  determine  the  fact  and  stop  it. 

Wash-room:  Number  and  condition  of  basins, 
overflow,  and  floors. 

Bathing  facilities:  Examine  for  sufficiency,  for 
cleanliness,  and  for  frequency  of  use.  Be  satisfied 
that  every  soldier  not  sick  bathes  completely  at  stated 
intervals,  and  that  the  tubs  are  clean. 

Waste  water:  Where  there  is  no  sewerage,  what 
is  its  disposition? 


SANITARY  INSPECTION  BY  COMPANY  OFFICERS.    221 

Guard-house:  Capacity,  cleanliness,  ventilation, 
heating,  ami  number  of  occupants  of  cells  and  of 
prison  room  separately.  Prisoners  may  properly  be 
uncomfortable,  but  their  health  should  not  be  allowed 
to  suffer  in  the  least. 

Guard-room:  The  guard  should  not  be  unneces- 
sarily uncomfortable  and  their  apartment  should  be 
well  ventilated,  not  unduly  warm,  and  entirely  free 
from  gross  dirt.  There  should  be  facilities  for  prepar- 
ing a  hot  luncheon  for  the  reliefs  going  on  post  at 
and  after  midnight.  All  these  points  should  be  ob- 
served. Clothing  and  blankets,  whether  of  the  guard 
or  of  prisoners,  should  be  inspected  or  treated  for 
vermin  before  being  re-introduced  into  the  barracks. 

Stables:  Ventilation,  light,  and  relation  of  win- 
dows to  horses.  Is  the  floor  dry?  If  sickness 
among  horses,  examine  for  soil-moisture  and,  if  nec- 
essary, recommend  deep  drainage.  If  flies  are  nu- 
merous, determine  the  cause.  Note  the  disposition 
of  liquid  waste  within  and  of  the  general  manure 
without  the  stables.  (Peat  moss  for  bedding  pre- 
vents ammoniacal  odor  in  the  stalls.) 

Married  men's  quarters:  Inspect  every  room  for 
air-space,  ventilation,  light,  and  general  cleanliness. 
Inspect  the  cellar,  if  any,  for  dampness  and  odor. 
Observe  carefully  the  disposition  of  kitchen  waste 
and  of  laundry  slops. 

Privies:  In  those  posts  or  parts  of  posts  where 
there  is  no  sewage,  the  privies  must  be  carefully 
supervised  by  the  companies  responsible,  and  every 
one  should  be  inspected  once  a  week.  Where  they 
are  pits  they  should  be  filled  with  fresh  earth  when 
within  two  feet  of  the  surface,  marked,  and  reported 
to  the  quartermaster  to  be  noted  on  the  post  map. 
No  pit  for  this  purpose  should  be  dug  without  author- 
ity from  the  commanding  officer.  The  vicinity  of 
stables,  corrals,  wood-piles,  haystacks,  should  be 
carefully  inspected  for  superficial  pollution.  Each 
company  must  carefully  guard  against  contaminat- 
ing a  local  water-supply. 


222  NOTES    ON    MILITARY    HYGIENE. 


In  the  Field. 

Follow  as  far  as  applicable  the  form  for  garrison 
inspection.  Also : 

Tents:  Character;  number  of  inmates;  ditched? 
Whether  floored  or  not  floored,  is  the  ground  dry 
and  clean?  How  much  above  the  floor  is  the  bunk? 
Is  the  canvas  sound?  How  ventilated,  heated? 
How  frequently  removed  to  new  site?  If  not  regu- 
larly moved,  how  frequently  struck?  Are  the  walls 
raised  daily  in  fair  weather?  In  the  warm  season, 
to  leeward  at  night?  Is  unauthorized  material,  par- 
ticularly food,  present?  In  a  malarious  region  do 
the  men  have  nets,  and  use  them? 

Huts:  Material;  size;  shape;  cubic  capacity; 
mode  of  heating;  ventilation;  lighting;  condition 
of  floor;  style  of  bunks;  unauthorized  material, 
especially  food,  present;  water-tight  or  not;  dry  or 
damp;  ditched  and  banked;  sickness  since  last 
inspection;  lateral  distance  between  huts;  distance 
to  next  in  rear? 

Company  street:  Is  it  of  proper  width;  well 
tamped;  ditched;  dusty;  muddy;  well  policed? 

Kitchen:  Cleanliness  of  ground,  tables,  utensils. 
How  is  food  protected  before  cooking;  after?  Dis- 
tance from  kitchen  sink;  distance  from  nearest 
part  of  company  street;  direction  and  distance  from 
company  sinks;  prevailing  wind;  do  flies  appear 
to  reach  the  kitchen  from  company  sink,  directly 
or  otherwise?  Direct  disposition  of  waste  from 
kitchen. 

Mess  table:  If  such  a  table,  condition  of  it  and 
the  adjacent  ground;  are  flies  there,  excepting  when 
meals  are  served;  how  are  individual  utensils 
cleansed?  If  no  mess  table,  is  food  eaten  at  the 
tents  or  at  the  kitchen?  If  at  the  tents,  are  remains 
of  food  found  there? 

Kitchen  sink:  Character;  ultimate  disposition  of 
waste;  condition  of  surrounding  ground;  is  it 


SANITARY  INSPECTION  BY  COMPANY  OFFICERS.    223 

flooded  by  rain  or  from  ground-water;  is  it  treated 
with  lime  or  any  other  disinfectant? 

Company  sink:  Situation  as  to  distance  and  direc- 
tion from  the  nearest  company  street  and  company 
kitchen,  with  prevailing  wind.  Character;  length; 
depth;  protection  from  sun,  rain,  observation? 
How  frequently  and  how  effectively  is  earth  thrown 
in?  What  other  disinfectants,  if  any,  introduced? 
What  action  is  taken  against  flies,  and  how  fre- 
quently? Recommendation.  (Such  sinks  should  be 
covered  in  and  marked  before  breaking  camp,  and 
when  their  contents  approach  the  level  of  the  sur- 
face.) 

Camp  urinals :  How  placed  in  relation  to  company 
streets;  how  arranged;  how  cared  for;  are  there 
signs  of  urination  elsewhere? 

Food:  Variety;  amount;  regularity  of  supply; 
condition  when  issued;  how  cooked;  waste  before 
or  after  serving;  sufficiency  or  insufficiency  of  any 
particular  part  of  the  ration? 

Water-supply:  How  obtained  by  the  men;  how 
is  the  company  supply  preserved;  if  it  appears  to 
affect  the  health  of  the  men,  how;  if  boiling  has  been 
ordered,  is  any  drank  raw;  is  there  deficiency;  is 
there  waste;  if  filtered  by  or  for  the  company,  how 
and  how  effectively? 

The  soldier:  Are  his  uniform  and  equipment  suf- 
ficient in  amount  and  character;  is  there  spare 
underclothing ;  an  extra  pair  of  stockings ;  do  the 
shoes  really  fit  (the  officer  should  satisfy  himself); 
are  the  feet  in  good  condition  (inspect);  if  feet  not 
in  good  condition,  fix  responsibility  and  report  it; 
is  the  person  clean ;  the  underclothing  clean ;  hair 
and  beard  cropped  close;  is  the  canteen  occasionally 
boiled  and  the  inside  always  kept  clean? 

For  the  march:  Again  inspect  the  feet;  inspect 
the  kit  and  reject  everything  not  authorized;  in- 
spect canteen  and  allow  nothing  but  pure  water 
(boiled  in  the  tropics)  or  weak  tea,  and  explain  its 
proper  use;  inspect  for  abdominal  apron  in  hot  or 


224  NOTES    ON   MILITARY   HYGIENE. 

cold  weather;  in  the  tropics  require  a  wet  cloth  or 
sponge  in  the  hat;  in  hot  weather  authorize  outer 
garments  to  be  well  opened  when  marching  in  route 
step  or  at  ease,  to  facilitate  evaporation  from  the 
body  and  to  diminish  risk  of  heat  exhaustion.  At 
halts,  men  when  fatigued  should  be  cautioned  to  lie 
at  full  length  if  the  ground  permits,  or,  sitting,  to 
lean  entirely  relaxed  against  a  tree  or  similar  support. 


USEFUL  BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

(In  each  case  the  latest  edition.) 

Growth  of  the  Recruit  and  Young  Soldier.     Sir  Wm.  Aitken. 

Epitome  of  Triplets  Manual.     Col.  C.  R.  Greenleaf. 

Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene.     Dr.  Jerome  Walker. 

The  Human  Body  (School  edition),  Dr.  H.  N.  Martin. 

Soldier's  Pocket-book.     Lord  Wolseley. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Hygiene.     Notter  and  Firth. 

Handbook  of  Hygiene.     Major  A.  M.  Davies,  R.AJfl.C. 

Practical  Hygiene.     Dr.  Charles  Harrington. 

Military  Hygiene.     Capt.  E.  L.  Munson. 

Chemistry  of  Cookery.     M.  Williams. 

Healthy  Foundations  for  Houses.     Glenn  Brown. 

How  to  Drain  a  House.     G.  E.  Waring,  Jr. 

House  Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumbing.     W.  P.  Gerhard. 

Rural  Hygiene.     Dr.  G.  V.  Poore. 

Sanitary  Engineering;   Sewerage.     Baldwin  Latham. 

Principles  of  Ventilation  and  Heating.     Dr.  J.  S.  Billings. 

Water-supply.     W.  Ripley  Nichols. 

Water-supply.    W.  P.  Mason. 

225 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Abdomen,  protection  for 41,  207 

Absinthe 84 

Age  and  height,  influence  of 13 

of  recruits 2,  6, 13 

Air,  composition  of 101 

barrack,  contamination  of 104,  106 

space  required 108 

Alaska,  ration  for 50-2 

Albuminates  as  food 44,  47 

Alcohol 81,  209 

wood 85 

Amusements  in  camp 128,  197 

AnopheCes  mosquito  and  malaria 174 

Antiscorbutics 79 

Apprentices,  military 9 

ARLOING  on  human  sweat 106 

Asepsis 215 

ATWATER  on  food 85 

Back-pressure  in  water-closets 142 

Bacon „ 61 

Badges,  corps 24 

Bake  meat,  to 58 

Barracks  and  quarters 96 

sanitary  number  of  occupants  in 98 

care  of 116 

227 


228  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Beef,  corned 62 

fresh 56 

good,  qualities  of 57 

ration  of. 56 

salt 60 

Beer 84 

Belt,  trousers' 37 

Berkefeld  filter 163 

Beverages 79 

Bivouacs 118 

Blanket 41 

Blanket-roll 135 

Blemishes  in  recruits,  notation  of 2, 19 

Boil  meat,  to 57 

Bones,  development  of  human.  . 9, 10 1 

Bread 65 

bake  in  the  field,  to 70 

hard 72 

make,  to 68 

from  poor  flour 70 

Breeches 36 

Buzzacott  field-oven 71 

Calorie,  definition  of 85 

Camp-grounds,  old 122 

Camps 118 

permanent 126, 193 

amusements  in 128, 197 

Canned  foods 75 

Cap,  military 31 

Carbohydrates  as  food 44 

Carbon  as  food 47 

dioxide 101 

monoxide 106 

Carbonic  acid 101 

impurity 105 

test  for 105 

oxide.  .                                                                             .  106 


INDEX.  229 

PAGE 

Cattle,  to  determine  weight  of 56 

Cellar-walls 96 

Cesspools 147 

Ohamberland-Pasteur  filter 162 

Cheerfulness  in  camp  an  element  of  health 196 

Cheese 73 

Chest  capacity 4 

effect  of  pressure  upon  the 10 

measurement 5 

mobility 5 

Chlorides  in  water,  meaning  of 166 

Cholera 164,  171, 178 

carried  by  water 163 

prevention  of 178, 179 

Cisterns 151 

Clark's  process 156 

Clay  as  site 92 

Cleanliness,  personal 132, 189, 190 

Clothing,  military 24 

color  of 25 

cotton  and  linen  for 27 

marks,  conspicuous,  upon 25 

materials  for 27 

object  of 24 

special  articles  of 41 

waterproof 31 

wool  for 28 

Clothing  case,  the  Parker 135 

Coat,  military  dress 33 

sack 33 

service 33 

Coffee 79 

Collars 33 

Color,  absorption  of  odor  by 26 

relation  of,  to  uniform 25 

Consumption 181 

Cooking,  good,  importance  of 80,  198 

Cornmeal 73 


230  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Corps  badges 24 

Cotton  clothing .* .      27 

Crowd  poisoning 104, 115 

Deodorants 183 

Development  of  the  body 9 

Dhobic  itch 131 

Diet,  errors  of 198,  209 

Diphtheria ' 181 

Disconnection  of  sewers 145 

Diseases,  contagious 183 

infectious 174-182 

preventable 174, 197 

Disinfectants 179, 183 

Ditching  of  tents 124,  192 

of  company  streets 125, 192 

Drainage 90 

Drawers 37 

Drill,  effect  upon  recruits  of  excessive 12 

Drunkenness 16 

Dry-earth  system 122, 147 

Dug-outs 88,  126 

Dutch  oven 71 

Dysentery 164, 196,  200 

persistence  of 201 

Emergency  ration 54 

Exchange,  Post 84 

Excreta,  disposal  of 136, 147 

Fat  as  food 45 

to  cook  in 58 

Fatigue  suit 41 

Feet,  care  of  the 39, 132, 188 

Field,  care  of  troops  in  the 185 

Filters  and  their  action 160 

First-aid  packets 216 

Flies 121,196 


INDEX.  231 


Floor-space  in  squad-room 99, 110 

Flour 65 

lime-water  to  be  used  with 70 

store,  to 68 

tests  for 66 

Fluids  on  the  march 132 

Food 43 

canned 75 

cheap 76 

classes  and  object  of , 43 

climate,  relation  to,  of 78 

concentrated 53 

quantity  consumed. 49 

required 48 

values,  tables  of 86 

Foot-powder - 40, 189 

Forbes- Winslow  sterilizer 163 

Formaldehyde 184 

Fruit,  tropical 78,  209 

Frying. 58 

Furfural 84 

Furnace,  fresh-air  supply 116 

garbage 148 

Gaiters,  see  Leggings. 

Garbage,  destruction  of 148 

Gas,  illuminating 107 

Ground-air 88 

Ground- water 89 

Growth  of  the  body 9 

Habitations '. 88 

Hardness  of  water 155 

to  remove 156 

Hat,  military.  ......' 31 

Head,  coverings  for  the 31 

Heart,  growth  and  development  of 11 

strain.  .  ,                                                               12 


232  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Heat-stroke,  avoidance  of 133,  207 

Height,  influence  of 14 

of  recruits 3 

Horse-flesh  as  food 64 

Horses,  ventilation  for 103,  116 

water-allowance  for 171 , 172 

Huts 126, 193 

for  squads  of  eight 127 

Hydrocarbons  as  food 45 

Hygiene,  military,  nature  of 1 

Ice 173 

Injury  and  sickness  compared 21 

Inspection,  scheme  for 218 

Intestines,  diseased  of 197 

Intemperance 16 

Kitchen  slops 117, 148 

Kola 55 

Latrines 140 

Laundry  slops. 148 

Leggings 37 

Limestone  regions,  water  in 165 

Lime-water  to  be  used  with  flour 70 

Linen  clothing 27 

Lungs,  growth  and  development  of 11 

Malaria 174 

precautions  against 202,  204 

resistance  to 176 

Marches,  conduct  of! 129,  210 

night 133,  213 

Marching,  excessive 134 

Measle  of  beef  and  pork 63 

Measles  in  camp 21, 183 

Meat,  cook,  to 57 

diseased.  .  63 


INDEX.  233 

PAGE 

Meat,  good,  signs  of 57 

pies 64 

preserve,  to 64 

Merino 29 

Merriam  equipment 135 

Minors  as  recruits 6,  20 

Mosquitoes  as  bearers  of  disease 174,  180 

extermination  of 175 

Mumps  in  camp 183 

Munson's  hospital  tent 124 

water-proofing  process 31 

Music,  martial 128, 131, 197,  213 

Nitrites  and  nitrates  in  water 166, 168 

Nitrogen  in  food 43 

Oatmeal 73 

Oil,  illuminating 1 07 

Oven,  Buzzacott 71 

Dutch 71 

Overcoat,  military 40 

Overmarching 134 

Ozone 108 

Parker  clothing  case 135 

Pasteur-Chamberland  filter.  .   162 

Pemmican 53,  77 

Perflation 109 

Physique  of  recruits 1 

Plague 181 

Plasmodium  of  malaria 174 

Police,  camp,  importance  of 125,  194, 198,  201 

Poncho,  rubber 41 

Pork,  fresh 61,  64 

salt 61 

Precipitation  in  water 158 

Pressure  on  chest,  effect  of 10 

Privies 117 


234  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Privies,  to  disinfect 184 

Protector,  abdominal 41,  207 

Purification  of  water 158 

Putties 37 

Quarters 96 

Quinine,  preventive  use  of 202,  204,  213 

Rainfall,  to  measure 151 

Ration,  the  (see  also  Food) 48 

actual  and  proposed 52 

beef 56 

bread 50,  65 

cook  the,  to 80 

emergency 54 

field 50 

garrison 50 

preparation  of  the 80, 186 

savings  from  the 49 

sufficiency  of 49 

travel 53 

tropics,  for  the 78 

varieties  of  the. 48 

vegetables  in  the 50 

Recruits,  age  of 2,  6, 13,  20,  186 

blemishes  in 2, 19 

care  of 190 

drill,  effect  of  injudicious,  on 12 

examination  of 14 

height  of 3,  6, 14 

intelligence  of 15 

minors  as 6,  20, 186 

rural 20, 186 

urban 19 

weight  of 3,  6 

REED,  WALTER,  demonstration  of  propagation  of  yellow 

fever 18Q 

Respiration,  effect  upon  the  air  of ,..,.< 101 


INDEX.  235 

PAGE 

Rice-fields 92 

Roast  meat,  to 58 

Salts,  inorganic  as  food 45 

vegetable  as  food 46 

Sand  as  sites 91 

Sand  filters 160 

Sandstones 91 

Sausage 64 

Scarlet  fever 183 

disinfection  in 183 

Scurvy 78 

Seals,  water-closet  and  other 140 

Sedimentation  in  water 157 

Serge  as  clothing 30 

Sewage 136 

chemical  indications  of 166, 169 

disappearance  of,  ultimate r .  169 

in  drinking  water 165 

in  wells 167 

Sewerage 136 

Sewer-air 136 

Sewer-pipes 137 

Sewers  and  waste,  definitions , 136 

Sewers '. 136,  137 

disconnection  of 145 

ventilation  of 145 

Shirts , .  34 

Shoddy  as  material 30 

Shoes 38, 187 

Sickness  compared  with  injury 21 

Simmer,  to 58 

Sinks,  company 120,  195 

kitchen 122 

Siphonage  of  water-closets 143 

Sites 92 

Slops,  kitchen  and  laundry.  .  .  . .  . 117, 148 

Smallpox 183 


236  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Smith's  test  for  carbonic  impurity 105 

Snow 173 

Soil 88 

made 92 

Soil-air 88 

.Soil-moisture 89 

avoidance  of 125, 192 

Soil-pipes 144 

Soldiers,  selection  of,  see  Recruits. 

Solution,  substances  in 154 

Soup,  to  make 59 

Springs. 150,  151 

and  wells 152 

Stables,  ventilation  of 116 

Starches  and  sugars  as  food 44 

Stegomyia  mosquito  and  yellow  fever 180,  204 

Step,  military 129 

Sterilizer,  water,  Forbes- Winslow 163 

Stew  meat,  to 59 

Stockings 37 

Straggling 133,  212 

Sugar,  in  the  field. 77 

Sugars  and  starches  as  food 44 

Suspenders. 37 

Suspension  in  water,  substances  in *. 154, 157 

Sweat,  poisonous  agent  in 106 

Tapeworm 63 

Tea 80 

Teeth 16 

Tents 123 

care  of 125, 192 

Tiles,  to  lay. 90 

Toxins,  protective  inoculation  with 179 

Traps,  water-closets  and  other  fixtures,  of 140 

Travel  ration 53 

Trichina  spiralis 64 

Trousers 36 


INDEX.  237 

PAGE 

Typhoid  fever 21, 164,  177 

as  carried  by  water 165 

prolonged  convalescence  from 201 

Uniform,  see  Clothing. 

Urinals 121, 196 

Vaccination 19, 183 

Vegetables,  canned 75 

dried. 74 

fresh 50,  75 

ration,  in  the 50 

Vegetation  in  relation  to  sites 93 

Ventilation 100, 108 

methods  of 109 

necessity  for 101, 116 

sewers  and  soil-pipes,  of 145 

Vents  for  traps 143 

Vermin,  relief  from : 191 

Vino 84 

Walls,  permeability  to  air,  of 115 

Warren's  Cooker 59 

Waste 136 

disposal  of 149 

pipes 137 

Water 150 

allowance  for  men 172 

horses 172 

boiled,  advantages  of 160, 176,  200,  203 

contaminated 163 

disease-bearing 163 

distilled 160,  200 

filtration  of 160 

food,  as 46 

hard 155 

impurities  in 168 

precipitation  in 158 


238  INDEX. 

PAOE 

Water,  purification  of,  artificially 158,  199 

in  nature 168 

sedimentation  in 157 

soft 155 

sterilizer  for 163 

surplus,  removal  of 149 

tests  for.  . 166, 169 

Water-closets. 137 

Water-proof,  to  make  clothing 31 

Water-supply  for  troops 171,  200 

care  of 171 

Weight  of  recruits 6 

Weights,  carriage  of 134 

Wells 152, 164 

tests  for  suspected 166 

Wood  alcohol 85 

Wool  as  clothing 28 

Woollens  to  wash 29 

Wounds,  asepsis  and 215 

compared  with  sickness 21 

Yellow  fever 179,  204 

prevention  of 180,  205 

Youth  objectionable  in  recruits 6 


JUO 


Notes  on 


hygiene « 


military 


X)GY 
LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY 


